Table 1.
Gaze communication between dogs/cats and humans.
| Dogs | References | Cats | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Response to human gaze | |||
| Stole food less often | Call et al., 2003; Kaminski et al., 2013 | Avoided the gaze of familiar human | Koyasu and Nagasawa, 2019 |
| Obeyed more commands of their owners | Schwab and Huber, 2006 | Selected food from humans who looked at them | Ito et al., 2016 |
| Fetched the toy that humans could see in the situation with two toys | Call et al., 2003 | ||
| Increased attention-getting behaviors | Ohkita et al., 2016 | ||
| Selected food from humans who looked at them | Gácsi et al., 2004 | ||
| Using human signals | |||
| Used human pointing in the task of selecting one of two containers | Miklosi et al., 2005 | Used human pointing in the task of selecting one of two containers | Miklosi et al., 2005 |
| Used human gaze direction with pointing in the task of selecting one of two containers | Hare et al., 2002 | Looked in the direction indicated by human gaze (with head movements) | Pongrácz et al., 2019 |
| Looked in the direction directed by human gaze (with head movements) | Hare et al., 1998; Agnetta et al., 2000; Téglás et al., 2012; Met et al., 2014 | Followed the container that humans visited in a situation with two food containers | Chijiiwa et al., 2020 |
| Followed the container that humans visited in a situation with two food containers | Chijiiwa et al., 2020; Nagasawa et al., 2020 | ||
| Social reference | |||
| Looked alternately at the food and the owner when it could access the food | Miklosi et al., 2005, Lazzaroni et al., 2020 | Did not look alternately at the food and the owner when it could not access the food | Miklosi et al., 2005 |
| Looked alternately at the strange object and the owner | Merola et al., 2012a,b | Looked alternately at the strange object and the owner | Merola et al., 2015 |
| The role of gaze in bond formation | |||
| Increased attention-getting behaviors in dogs, which function as attachment behaviors in response to human gaze | Ohkita et al., 2016 | Eyeblink synchronization during mutual gazing | Koyasu et al., 2020 |
| Dog owner's oxytocin secretion increased in response to the dog's gaze | Nagasawa et al., 2009 | ||
| An oxytocin-mediated positive loop of bond formation facilitated and modulated by gazing, like mother-infant | Nagasawa et al., 2015 | ||
| Eyeblink synchronization during mutual gazing | Koyasu et al., 2020 | ||