Table 1.

Control of Breathing in CSA: Pathogenesis and Potential Therapeutic Targets

Carotid body	• Chemoreflex role in overall sympathetic activation in heart failure: common pathways
	• Purinergic signaling
	• Gasotransmitters
Brain stem	• Understanding complex integrative responses: RTN, pre-Bötzinger complex, etc.
	• Mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity: long-term facilitation and potentiation
	• Cerebral vasoreactivity: mechanisms and role of impairment
Sleep state and arousals	• Mechanisms of stability in REM
	• Arousal contribution to instability in CSA
Low cardiac output	• Shear-stress sensing in the carotid body
	• Interactions between circulatory delay and loop gain; heart–lung interactions
	• Fluid shifts in supine position
	• Mechanisms sensing pulmonary congestion
System-integrative	• Refined in silico models
	• CSA model organisms
	• Effects of aging, sex, and other systemic influences (e.g., metabolic dysregulation)

Definition of abbreviations: CSA = central sleep apnea; RTN = retrotrapezoid nucleus.