Perfusion apparatuses for supporting function of living vascularized organs in vitro. (A–C) Diagrams of Lindbergh’s perfusion pump used for whole organ culture by Carrel (A; Lindbergh, 1935); Folkman’s experimental setup used for his tumor studies in perfused whole organs (B; from Folkman et al., 1963, with permission of John Wiley and Sons); and a patent drawing of a microfluidic human organ-on-a-chip (C).