Table 1.
Drugs of abuse associated with exacerbation of HIV infection
| No. | Drug type | Effect | Through | Article |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Intravenous Drugs | BBB dysfunction ↑ | TNF-a | (35) |
| 2 | Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Morphine | Oxidative stress & BBB permeability ↑ | gp120 neurotoxicity | (36–39) |
| 3 | Morphine | Expression of Dendric cell markers ↑ | CD11c, macDC-SIGN, CD83 | (40) |
| 4 | Methamphetamine, N-Methyl-3,4-methylene-dioxyamphetamine (MDMA), cocaine, nicotine | BBB dysfunction ↑ | change in expression & conformation of TJ proteins, glial & astrocyte activation, inducing neuroinflammatory pathways | (41–43) |
| 5 | Methamphetamine | BBB dysfunction ↑ | Increasing viral load | (44) |
| 6 | Methamphetamine | BBB dysfunction ↑ | MMP level ↑ microglial activation, neuronal & synaptic injury | (45) |
| 7 | Cocaine | BBB leakage ↑ | Transmigration of leukocytes/monocytes into CNS | (46) |
| 8 | Cocaine | Monocyte adhesion and trafficking ↑ | activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule (ALCAM) | (47) |
| 9 | Cocaine | Increased permeability of endothelial barrier ↑ | PDGF (platelet derived growth factor) implication in activating mitogen activated protein kinases & Egr-1 pathways | (48, 49) |
| 10 | Cocaine | PDGF-B expression | Notch-1 activation | (49) |
| 11 | Cannabinoid agonists | Decrease the permeability of BMVECs, prevent downregulation of TJ proteins such as ZO-1, claudin-5 & JAM-1. Inhibit transmigration of human monocytes across BBB & block BBB permeability in vivo | Inhibition of calcium influx by substance P & CB(2) receptor (CB2R) | (50–52) |
| 12 | Nicotine | Dysfunction in BMVECs & EPCs (Endothelial Progenitor Cells) | nicotine+gp120 = increased serum levels of ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase 1 (UCHL1) | (53) |
| 13 | Nicotine | BBB integrity disruption | nicotine + protease inhibitors = oxidative stress in endothelial cells & multiple efflux transporters | (54) |