Table 1.
Mechanisms underlying endocrine resistance in breast cancer mediated by extracellular vesicles (EVs).
| Source of EVs | EV Types | Molecules | Type of Resistance | Effects | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MCF-7 cells | Exosomes | Unknown | Tamoxifen | Decreased ERα activity, increased of Akt, AP-1, NF-kB and SNAIL1 activity | [74,75] |
| MCF-7-LTED cells | Exosomes | Unknown | Aromatase inhibitors | Increased exosome release from resistant cells | [76] |
| TAMR-MCF-7 cells | Exosomes | miR-221/222 | Tamoxifen | Decreased P27 and ERα expression | [77] |
| CAFs | MVs | miR-221 | Fulvestrant | Increased CSC population | [78] |
| LCC2 cells | Exosomes | lncRNA UCA1 | Tamoxifen | Increased cell viability, reduced apoptosis | [79] |
| TAMR-MCF-7 cells | sEVs | Unknown | Tamoxifen | Increased cell migration | [80] |
| CAFs | EVs | mtDNA | Fulvestrant | Promoted escape from metabolic quiescence, increased CSC self-renewal | [81] |
| BT474 cells Serum of BC patients |
Exosomes | Unknown | Trastuzumab | Reduced HER-2 monoclonal antibody bioavaibility | [82] |
| Serum of HER-2-positive BC patients | EVs | TGF-β1, PD-L1 | Trastuzumab | Increased immune evasion | [83] |
| Serum of BC patients | Exosomes | lncRNA SNHG14 | Trastuzumab | Reduced apoptosis | [84] |
| BT474-TR cells | Exosomes | lncRNA AGAP2-AS1 | Trastuzumab | Inhibited trastuzumab-induced cell cytotoxicity | [85] |
| BT474-TR cells | Exosomes | lncRNA AFAP1-AS1 | Trastuzumab | Increased ERBB2 gene translation | [86] |
| BT474 cells | Exosomes | miR-567 | Trastuzumab | Reversed trastuzumab resistance | [87] |
| MCF-7 cells T47D cells | Exosomes | miR-432-5p | Palbociclib | Promoted suppression of TGF-β pathway | [88] |
EVs, extracellular vesicles; MVs, microvesicles; sEVs, small extracellular vesicles; ERα, estrogen receptor α; AP-1, activation protein-1; NF-kB, nuclear factor-κB; SNAIL1, snail homolog 1; MCF-7-LTED, MCF-7 long-term estrogen-deprived; P27, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor P27; TAMR-MCF-7, tamoxifen-resistant MCF-7; CSCs, cancer stem cell-like; CAFs, cancer-associated fibroblasts; LCC2, tamoxifen-resistant subline of the MCF-7 human breast cancer cell; BC, breast cancer; lncRNA UCA1, long non-coding RNA urothelial cancer associated 1; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; TGF-β1, transforming growth factor beta 1; PD-L1, programmed death-ligand 1; SNHG14, small nucleolar RNA host gene 14; AGAP2-AS1, AGAP2- antisense RNA1; AFAP1-AS1, actin filament-associated protein 1 antisense RNA1; ERBB2, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2; miR, microRNA; BT474-TR, BT47D trastuzumab resistant.