Table 1.
Summary for different cycling in various spheres of the earth
| Sphere | Typical activity | Main process | Cycling scale | Driver |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biosphere | Natural ecosystem | Cascades | Small cycling | Energy flow |
| Farming | Small cycling | Social needs | ||
| Food chain | Moderate cycling | Energy flow and social needs | ||
| Technosphere | Urban mining Zero waste Circular economy Industrial ecosystem |
Reuse | Small cycling | Social needs |
| Remanufacturing | Small cycling | Social needs | ||
| Recycling | Moderate cycling | Social needs | ||
| Recovery | Moderate cycling | Social needs | ||
| All spheres | Global ecosystem | Geochemical cycling | Large cycling | Geodynamics and social needs |