Figure 2.

Current tools of CVDs modeling. (A) In vivo animal models, such as rodents, rabbits, and pigs, have been widely used to study CVD pathomechanisms; however, they display many anatomical and physiological differences when compared to humans. (B) In vitro two-dimensional (2-D) cellular models based on animal and human cells as well as on pluripotent stem cells demonstrate their validity to evaluate the altered pathway at the single-cell level. (C) In silico bioinformatic tools gather together all the information and knowledge generated in other models, consider stratification risks, and advance new hypotheses. Reproducible validation is compulsory. (D) In vitro 3-D bioengineered models are gaining more interest in the cardiovascular research community by offering human platforms for CVD modeling in precision medicine settings. They might also be applied to verify the therapeutic hypotheses of in silico simulations.