Table 1.
Overview of papers included in this review.
| N(ref)1 | First author | Study type | Assessment method | Location | Female N (%) | Age (mean) in years | Dietary change | Findings that report a change and/or show significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (7) | Allabadi et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey (telephone) | Asia (Palestine) | 300 (50%) | 10–19 (14.1) | Comfort food, fruit, and vegetable increase | Food intake increased during lockdown; weight gain seen (p < 0.001). Increased food intake higher in females than males (p = 0.013). |
| (8) | ALMughamis et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey (WhatsApp) | Asia (India) | 380 (72.8%) | (41.8) | Snacking, food intake increase | Change in dietary habits. Increased snacking, particularly after dinner. Weight gain seen in lockdown (p < 0.001). Increase in sedentary levels. |
| (9) | Ammar et al. | Cross-sectional study | Mental and physical health and lifestyle behavior survey (online) | Global (40% Africa, 36% Asia, 21% Europe) | 563 (53.8%) | 18+ | Meal number, comfort food, and snacking increase | Increase in number of meals consumed (p < 0.001). Binge eating habits and snacking increased during confinement (p < 0.001). Consumption of unhealthy food increased (p < 0.001). Binge alcohol drinking decreased (p < 0.001). |
| (10) | Bhutani et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey (online) | Americas (U.S.4) | 1,007 (56.6%) | 18–75 | Snacking, fruit, and vegetable increase | Increased intake of fruit and vegetables (p > 0.05). Increase in processed food intake and snacking (p > 0.001). |
| (11) | Bracale et al. | Panel study | Analysis of consumer trends | Europe (Italy) | Decrease in fresh food intake | Increase in long-life products: pasta, flour, eggs, homemade bread and pizza, and red or processed meat. Decrease in fresh produce. | ||
| (12) | Deschasau-Tanguy et al. | Cohort study | Demographic survey and 24-h recall (online) | Europe (France) | 19,483 (52.3%) | 15+ (52.1) | Snacking, comfort food increase, fresh food decrease | Change in dietary habits. Reported weight gain, particularly among young women. Increase in home cooking, snacking, comfort food, and alcohol intake. Reduction in fresh fruit, vegetable, meat, and fish. |
| (13) | Di Renzo et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey (online) | Europe (Italy) | 2,486 (71%) | 12–86 | No change in meal number | Increase in homemade foods. Decrease in fresh fish, baked goods, and alcohol intake (p = 0.002). |
| (14) | Gallo et al. | Cohort study | Self-administered 24-h recall | Oceania (Australia) | 295 (57.9%) | 19–27 | Snacking and food intake increase | Snacking and energy intake increase in females (p < 0.05). Increase in number of meals consumed at home (p < 0.0001). Reduction in walking (p < 0.05). |
| (15) | Husain et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey (online) | Asia (India) | 285 (68.7%) | 18–73 (38.5) | Snacking increase | Change in dietary habits, increase in number of meals (p = 0.000). Increase in snacking, particularly at night (p = 0.000). Increase in freshly made foods/home cooking. Decrease in red meat and fast food consumption (p = 0.000). |
| (16) | Matsungo and Chopera | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey (online) | Africa (Zimbabwe) | 318 (63%) | 18+ | Decrease in fruit and vegetables | Decrease in fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds, cereals, breads, and tubers intake (p < 0.006). Increase in perceived body size seen in lockdown (p < 0.001). |
| (17) | Mehta | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey | Asia (India) | 25 (50%) | 20–50 (37) | Snacking, meal numbers increase, fruit, and vegetable decrease | Change in dietary habits. Intake during meal times and snacking increased. Fruit and vegetable intake decreased during confinement. |
| (18) | Mitchell et al. | Retrospective cohort study | Dietary and lifestyle record (mobile app) | Americas (U.S.) | 318,224 (83.4%) | 18+ (47.8) | Decrease in fruit and vegetables | Decrease in fruit and vegetable intake. Increased in red and processed meat intake, particularly among men. |
| (19) | Parnham et al. | Cross-sectional study | COVID-19 related questionnaire | Europe (UK5) | 8+ | Reduction in school meals | Half of children did not receive free school meals during lockdown (p < 0.01). | |
| (20) | Pellegrini et al. | Retrospective observational study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey (telephone) | Europe (Italy) | 18–75 (47.9) | Snacking increase | Increase in BMI and self-reported weight gain (p < 0.001). Lower educational levels, higher anxiety/depression levels, and poor dietary habits associated with weight gain (p < 0.001). Increased consumption of snacks, sweets, and cereals (p < 0.001). | |
| (21) | Phillipou et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and mood survey (online) | Oceania (Australia) | 4,231 (80%) | 18+ | Food intake | Higher levels of binge eating (~35%) (p < 0.003), higher levels of restrictive eating (~28%) (p < 0.001). |
| (22) | Pietrobelli et al. | Cross-sectional study | Lifestyle questionnaire (in-person and telephone) | Europe (Italy) | 19 (46%) | 6–18 (14) | Meal number, comfort food increase | Increase in number of meals consumed (p < 0.001). Increase in fruit consumption (p = 0.055). Intake of crisps sweets and sugary drinks increased (p = 0.005 – <0.001). |
| (23) | Rodriguez-Perez et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic and dietary intake survey (online) | Europe (Spain) | 5,305 (70.6%) | 18+ | No increase in meal intake | No increase in eating habits. Decreased alcohol intake and physical activity levels. Difficulty finding fresh fish and vegetables. Males had significantly different intake levels of fruit, vegetables, and olive oil (p < 0.006). |
| (24) | Romeo-Arroyo et al. | Cross-sectional study | Diet and lifestyle survey (online) | Europe (Spain) | 301 (50.1%) | 18–68 (42.6) | Comfort food increase | Increase intake of sweets. Decrease in fresh fish intake (p < 0.05). |
| (25) | Ruiz-Roso et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey (online) | Global (EU2 and South America) | 495 (61.1%) | <14 to >17 (16) | Comfort food, fruit, and vegetable increase | Increase in fruit and vegetable (p < 0.0001) and legumes (p < 0.05) intake, higher compliance with recommendations. Fast food intake decreased (p < 0.0001). Sweet (p < 0.0001) and fried food (p < 0.001) intake increased. |
| (26) | Scarmozzino et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic and dietary intake survey (online) | Europe (Italy) | Anonymous | Comfort food, food intake increase | Increased eating during confinement. Increase in comfort food intake: chocolate, ice cream, and desserts. Increased snacking. Decreased alcohol intake. | |
| (27) | Sidor et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, diet, and lifestyle survey (online) | Europe (Poland) | 1,042 (95%) | 18+ (27.7) | Snacking and food intake increase | Increased eating and snacking during confinement in those with a higher BMI3 (p < 0.01). Highest BMIs had lowest fruit and vegetable intake, highest dairy, red meat, and fast food intakes (p < 0.05). |
| (28) | Zachery et al. | Correlational study | Demographic, lifestyle, and social survey (online) | Americas (U.S.) | 96 (55.5%) | (26) | Snacking increase | Increased snacking after dinner (p < 0.001 and increased eating in response to stress or boredom (p = 0.041) in those who gained weight during lockdown. |
| (29) | Zhao et al. | Cross-sectional study | Demographic, dietary, and household food diversity survey | Asia (China) | 1,273 (65.7%) | 18+ | No increase in meal intake | Increased intake of nutritional supplements. Younger age group had a lower diet diversity score. |
1
N(ref), reference number;
2
EU, European Union;
3
BMI, body mass index;
4
U.S., United States;
5
UK, United Kingdom; N, number.