TABLE 2.
Natural drugs used to treat epilepsy by regulating neurotransmitters and synaptic function.
| Natural drugs | Compounds | Chemical structure | Animal models | Mechanisms | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Lamiaceae) | Tanshinone IIA |
|
PTZS in rats; 4-APS in mice | Activating GABA signaling pathway; Decreasing MEK activity and Glu, C-fos expressions | Buenafe et al. (2013); Tan et al. (2014) |
| Curcuma longa L. (“turmeric,” Zingiberaceae) | Curcumin |
|
PTZS and KAS in mice | Inhibiting acetylcholinesterase and mediating monoaminergic regulation | Kiasalari et al. (2013) |
| Passiflora coerulea L. var. Hort. | Chrysin |
|
PTZS in rats | Myorelaxant action agonizing the benzodiazepine receptor | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Matricaria chamomilla L. (Chamomile) | Apigenin |
|
PTXS in mice | Curbing benzodiazepine agonist | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. (Lamiaceae) | Wogonin |
|
Mice | Enhancing expression of GABAA receptors | Diniz et al. (2015) |
| Bupleurum chinense (Umbelliferae) | Quercetin |
|
KAS | Influencing ionotropic GABA receptors | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Plantago asiatica L (Plantaginaceae) | Hispidulin |
|
Rat | Decreaseing Glu | Diniz et al. (2015) |
| Green tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze) | EGCG |
|
L&PS in rats | Increasing impression of GABA | Qu et al. (2019) |
| Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae) | Withanolide A |
|
PTZS in rats | Recovering distorted NMDA receptor solidity; Regulating AMPA receptor function | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Maclura tinctoria (Moraceae) | Morin |
|
PTZS in mouse | Modulating the concentrations of GABA | Lee et al. (2018) |
| Radix astragali (Astragalus species) | Baicalin |
|
PTZS in rats | Increasing impression of GABA | Diniz et al. (2015) |
| Citrus reticulata Blanco (Rutaceae) | Nobiletin |
|
PTZS in mice | Modulating expression of GABAA and GAD65; Recrovering Glu and GABA balance | Yang et al. (2018) |
| Smoke tree (Cotinus coggygria) | Fisetin |
|
Iron-induced experimental model in rats | Increasing GABA level in brain | Diniz et al. (2015) |
| Gastrodia elata Blume (Orchidaceae) | Gastrodin |
|
NMDAS in rat | Decreasing GABA-T, Glu, Increasing GAD65, GAD67 | Liu et al. (2018) |
| Radix bupleuri (Bupleurum L.) | Saikosaponin A |
|
L&PS in rats | Decreasing protein of p-gp, NMDAR | Xiang et al. (2014); Xie et al. (2013) |
| Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) | Ursolic acid Stearoyl glucoside |
|
MES in mice | Increasing the GABA level in central nervous system | Kazmi et al. (2012) |
| Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae) | Curzerene |
|
PTZS in mice | Effecting GABAergic and opioid systems | Abbasi et al. (2017) |
| Rhododendron tomentosum (Ledum palustre) | P-Cymene |
|
MES in mice | Mediating an increase in GABAergic response | Abbasi et al. (2017) |
| Matricaria chamomilla L. (Lauraceae) | (+)-Dehydrofukinone |
|
GABAA RM in mice | Facilitating GABAergic neuronal | Garlet et al. (2017) |
| Dennettia tripetala Baker f (Pepperfruit) | 1-nitro-2-phenylethane |
|
PTZS in mice | Associated with GABA neurons | Oyemitan et al. (2013) |
| Nigella sativa (N. sativa) L. (Ranunculaceae) | Alpha-Pinene |
|
PTZS in mice | Mediating GABAergic response | Bahr et al. (2019) |
| Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae) | Terpinen-4-ol |
|
PTZS in mice | Regulating GABAergic neurotransmission | Bahr et al. (2019) |
| Various medicinal plants | Phytol |
|
PTZS in mice | Interacting with GABAA receptor | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae) | Bilobalide |
|
L&PS in rats | Increasing GABA levels by potentiation | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae) | Carvacrol |
|
PTZS, MES in mice | Enhancing GABAA BZD receptor | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) | Safranal. |
|
PTZS in rats | Regulating the GABAA benzodiazepine receptor | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. exHavil. (Uncaria Schreber nom. cons.) | Rhynchophylline isorhynchophylline |
|
KAS in mice | Decreasing central nervous system synaptic transmission | Shao et al. (2016); Wang and Cai (2018) |
| Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae) | Piperine |
|
PTZS in both zebrafish and mice | Increasing GABA; Inhibit the TRPV1 receptor | Diniz et al. (2015) |
| Aconitum carmichaeli Debx. (Ranunculaceae) | Aconitine |
|
Male Wistar rats | Blocking GABAA mediated | Zhao et al. (2020) |
| Aconitum carmichaeli Debx. (Ranunculaceae) | 3-Acetylaconitine |
|
Male Wistar rats | Promoting GABAA activity | Zhao et al. (2020) |
| Aconitum carmichaeli Debx. (Ranunculaceae) | Lappaconitine |
|
Male Wistar rats | Promoting the release of GABAA | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Aconitum carmichaeli Debx. (Ranunculaceae) | Montanine |
|
PTZS in rats | Modulating neurotransmitter receptor systems; including GABAA receptors | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Coptis chinensis Franch., C.(Ranunculaceae) | Berberine |
|
PTZS in Zebrafish | Reducing convulsions and mortality and NMDA | Yang et al. (2018) |
| Erythrina mulungu Mart ex Benth (Leguminosae-Papilionaceae) | Erysotrine |
|
PTZS in miceBCLS in rats | Related to NMDA | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Cortex fraxini (Fraxinus rhynchophylla Hance) | Esculetin |
|
EMS in mice | Probably through the GABAergic neuron | Xiang et al. (2014) |
| Acorus tatarinowii Schott (Acorus L. Araceae) | α-asarone |
|
L&PS in rats | Decreasing GABA-T and NMDAR1 mRNA. Increasing GAD65, GAD67 | Miao et al. (2011); Yuan and Liu (2020) |
| Acorus tatarinowii Schott (Acorus L. Araceae) | β-asarone |
|
PTZS in rats | Modulating the excitatory transmitter glutamate | Yuan et al. (2019) |
| Nandina domestica Thunb (Berberidaceae) | Amentoflavone |
|
L&PS in rats | Improving the activity of acetylcholinesterase | Yuan (2016) |
4-AP induced seizures; EGCG, (-)-Epigallocatechin gallate; BCLS, bicuculline induced seizure; GABAA RM, GABAA Receptor mulation; KAS, Kainic acid (KA)-induced seizures; L&PS, Lithium & pilocarpine induced seizures; MES, Maximal electroshock-induced seizures; NMDAS, NMDA induced seizures; PTZS, PTZ-induced seizures; PTXS, Picrotoxin induced seizures.