Table 2.

Nanoparticle-membrane interaction.

Nanomaterial class	Nanomaterial	Cell lines/ lipid membranes	Material properties	Biological effect	Interactions/Mediated pathway	Year	Ref.
Carbon based	C60(OH)20	Allium cepa cells	Concentration: 10–110 mg L−1 Solubility: water soluble Size: (1–24 nm) Surface charge: −43 mV	Plant cell wall permeation, Plasma membrane exclusion, cell damage	Hydrophilicity, electrostatic repulsion, H-bonding, Van der Waals
		HT-29 cells		Low affinity for cell membrane
	C70–NOM	Allium cepa cells	Concentration: 10–110 mg L−1 Solubility: hydrophobic and clustered in high concentrations (10–100 nm) Surface charge: −34 mV	Plant cell wall protection	Hydrophobic interactions, non-covalent assembly	2010	[105]
		HT-29 cells		Cell lysis
	S/L-SWNTs		Size (diameter): (1–3 nm) Size (length): S-SWNTs (50–100 nm)	Cell nucleus localization	Nuclear envelope transport, energy independent pathway, clathrin-dependent endocytosis, caveolae-dependent endocytosis	2010	[106]
		Hep G2 cells	Size (diameter): (1–3 nm) Size (length): L-SWNTs (100–200 nm)	Cytoplasm localization	Clathrin-dependent endocytosis
	S/L-MWNTs		Size (diameter): (10–30 nm) Size (length): S-MWNTs (0.5–1 μm) Size (diameter): (10–30 nm) Size (length): L-MWNTs (1–2 μm)	FA receptor mediated endocytosis	Receptor binding
	GQDs	MDCK monolayer cells	Size: 3 nm, 12 nm Surface charge: −1 mV (3 nm), −15 mV (12 nm)	Time, concentration (~300 mg L−1) and size dependent cell membrane permeability. Noninduced cell lysis and plasma membrane penetration	Lipid raft-mediated transcytosis	2015	[107]
	GO-OH/COOH	POPC/POEPC, POPC/POPS (3:1) liposomes	Surface charge: 22 mV (POPC/POEPC (3:1) liposomes), −26 mV (POPC/POPS (3:1) liposomes), −56 mV (GO, pH 4)	Rupture of pre-adsorbed positively charged liposomes (QCM-D frequency shift), multilayered structure formation	Electrostatic interactions, H-bonding	2012	[108]
	GO (pristine/oxidized)	A549 and Raw264.7 cells	Layer: Single (thickness ~1 nm) Size: (200–700 nm) Raman bands: D (~1350 cm−1) and G (~1598 cm−1) Oxidization degree: 26.1%	Cell death and pore hole formation (non- autophagy) induced at concentrations 50 to 200 μg/mL.	Phospholipid extraction on GO surface (unstable Stage I) (↓Van der Waals energy), balance between internal membrane tension and graphene-mediated dispersion force (metastable Stage II), membrane tension, lipid extraction and pore formation (↓ Van der Waals energy) (stable Stage III)	2017	[109]
	DOPC lipid bilayer sandwiched GO	J774A (macrophage) and 4T1 (breast cancer) cells	Size: ~40 nm (GO) Height: Less than 2 nm Layer: Single or double	Transport inside of cell membrane (Lévy and directional dynamics), pore hole formation		2019	[110]
	S/L-GO sheets	Primary human neutrophils	Layer: Single or double (thickness: 1–2 nm) Size: GO-S (50–300 nm), GO-L (10–40 μm) Surface charge: −55 mV, −37 mV in cell culture medium	Dose-dependent loss of cell viability, membrane stripping, size-dependent (GO-L) NET induced production (Ca+2, ROS dependent), elevation of oxidized cholesterol species	Potential interaction with positively charged histones (NET), lipid oxidation	2018	[111]
Metal based	TiO2NPs	HMVEC monolayer and MDA-MB-231 cells	Size: 57 nm (in cell culture medium) Surface charge: −24 mV (in cell culture medium)	Dose (10–1250 μM) and size (nanoscale) dependent endothelial cell leakiness (NanoEL) due to cell junction (VE-cadherin) disruption, further promoting breast cancer cell intravasation	Electrostatic interactions between negatively charged TiO2 NPs and positively charged VE-cadherin side chains. Homophilic loss of cell-cell interaction	2013, 2019	[112– 113]
	AuNPs	HMVEC, HMMEC and HUVEC monolayer	Size: 10–30 nm Surface charge: ~−8 mV (in cell culture medium) SPR peak: 518 nm (Au10), 523 nm (Au30)	NanoEL	Disruption of VE-cadherin-VE-cadherin interactions	2017	[114]
	MSNs (MCM-41 and SBA-15)	RBC membranes	Size: ~600 nm (SBA-15), ~100 nm (MCM-41)	Size- (larger-> higher hemolytic activity) and surface (large surface->larger binding energy)- dependent interaction and engulfment between MSN and RBC membranes	Binding of silanol-rich surface of MSNs with phosphatidyl choline-rich RBC membrane	2011	[115]
Surface modified (Au based)	AuNPs	CP70, ASM, A2780, BEC cells	Plasma membrane charge: between −75 and −55 mV Size: 2 nm (AuNP core)	Surface charge (+AuNPs) → rapid plasma membrane depolarization, intracellular uptake and [Ca2+]i elevation. Concentration dependant (0–1.2 mM)	Electrostatic interactions	2010	[116]
	PVA-AuNPs	A549 and J774A.1 cells	Surface charge: Range of −3 mV to −14 mV in cell culture medium Functional groups: Primary, secondary, tertiary amino groups	Increased NP-cell membrane association for primary amines with high amine density (A549) combined with high protein adsorption (serum albumin, alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein) irrespective of amine density	Salt bridge formation, hydrophobicity, conformational effect on PVA coating and accessibility toward polar amino acids of serum proteins	2018	[117]
	Ligand-AuNPs	POPC, DOPC/DOPS (−), DOPC/DOEPC (+) A549 cells	Size: 13 nm Surface ligands: MW, charge, and bonding categorization, small molecules, biomacromolecules	Ligand’s size and adsorption affinity-two main factors for ligand exchange with lipid molecules Influence on endocytic pathways, uptake efficiency, cell membrane integrity	Electrostatic, hydrophobic and Van der Waals interactions	2019	[118]
	Ligand-coated AuNRs	SOPC monolayer, THP-1 cells	Diameter, length: CTAB/PDC-AuNRs (~15, ~60 nm) Surface charge: CTAB/PDC-AuNRs (30–40 mV in H2O, −13 mV in serum and H2O) Ligand-NR stability: (PDC>CTAB)	Weaker ligand stability and further detachment lead to membrane thickness decrease (SOPC), lysosomal membrane penetration, concentration dependent cytotoxicity and inflammation	CTAB-AuNRs (Van der Waals), PDCAuNRs (Hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions). CTAB-AuNRs-SOPC (↓Van der Waals, electrostatic interactions)	2019	[119]
Protein corona	BSA-PMASH NPPs	THP-1 monocytic and dTHP-1 macrophage cells	Surface charge: −25 mV in BSA medium	Reduced cellular association and internalization by protein-NPP complexes than NPPs in monocyte cells. Differential cellular association in dTHP-1 cells (SR-A-mediated phagocytosis)	Structural conformation of BSA upon protein corona formation influences binding with SR-A	2013	[121]
	BSA/HSA/HDL-AgNPs	RLE and RAEC cells	Size: 19 nm (AgNPs), 70 nm (HSA-AgNPs), 31 nm (BSA-AgNPs), 62 nm (HDL-AgNPs) Surface charge: −35 mV (AgNPs), −25 mV (HSA-AgNPs), −18 mV (BSA-AgNPs), −8 mV (HDL-AgNPs)	Reduced cytotoxicity of protein corona AgNPs in both cells lines at high concentrations (50 μg/ml) at 3 h and 6 h. Increased inflammatory response for HDL-AgNPs in RLE cells IL-6 mRNA expression: AgNPs (control, RLE, RAEC cells), HSA-AgNPs (↓-RLE, RAEC cells) BSA-AgNPs (↓-RLE, RAEC cells), HDL-AgNPs (↑-RLE cells, ↓-RAEC cells), Samples in the presence of Blt2 inhibitor (↓-RLE, RAEC cells)	Cell surface receptor-mediated signaling. Intracellular Ag+ release. Loss of protein corona upon internalization	2014	[122]
	HSA (modified)- DHLA-QDs	HeLa cells	HSA modified species: succinylated HSA (HSAsuc), aminated HSA (HSAam) Surface charge: −11 mV (HSA-QDs), −19 mV (HSAsuc-QDs), −6 mV (HSAam-QDs)	Enhanced membrane binding and cell internalization of HSAsuc-coated-QDs and respective suppression by HSAam-coated-QDs due to modified charge distributions	Active pinocytic (clathrin-mediated) pathway to endosomes and lysosomes	2014	[123]
	Deglycosylated protein corona SiO2NPs	dTHP-1 (M1, M2 macrophages) cells	Size: 126–139 nm Surface charge: ~9 mV	Enhanced cell membrane adhesion, nanoparticle uptake and stimulation of pro-inflammatory responses	Influence of glycosylation on immune activation	2015	[124]
	Hard/soft corona (human serum) PS-NPs (PS, PS-COOH, PS-NH2	Raw264.7 cells	Size (NP soft corona): 140 nm (PS), 178 nm (PS-COOH), 188 nm (PS-NH2) Size (NP hard corona):92 nm (PS), 80 nm (PS-COOH), 88 nm (PS-NH2) Hard corona thickness: 15 nm Surface charge: −4 mV (PS), −1 (PS-COOH), 1 mV (PS-NH2)	Differential cellular uptake between soft corona or Apo-A1 PS-NPs (inhibition) and hard corona PS-NPs. Significant enhanced uptake for hard corona PS-COOH-NPs	CLIC/GEEC endocytosis pathway for bare PS-NPs. Similar structural properties (large corona diameter ~100 nm and large number of Apo-A1 proteins) for soft corona and Apo-A1 PS-NPs lead to uptake inhibition	2017	[125]