fig 9.

Membrane channels and transporters. The ion channels are pathways to allow the diffusion of ions across the cell membrane. These channels can be opened or closed by changes in membrane voltage, associated ligands, and so on. Excessive intracellular calcium is detrimental to neuronal health, and a calcium gradient is maintained across the neuronal membrane mostly by three main types of transporters. The antiporters use an existing ion gradient (usually established by active or ATP-dependent transport) to transport calcium ions (green) in the opposite direction of the energizing ion (ie, sodium). Symporters transport calcium in the same direction of the energizing ion (blue). Both antiporter and symporters are considered secondary transporters because they derive energy from an existing gradient. The ATP-coupled active transporter is considered a primary transporter that uses ATP to affect the transmembrane movement of calcium to establish its gradient (adapted from [32])