Table 3. Cross-cutting challenges and enabling conditions in implementing actions for the sustainable production and consumption of food.

NGOs, nongovernment organizations.

Challenges	Enabling conditions to overcome challenges	Supporting key actions
Existing economic development trajectories, including “agriculture for development” through large-scale high-input farming.	Consideration of more diverse and equitable development pathways including consideration of biodiversity in food production systems and development projects (ecological intensification, agroecology).	1, 7, 8
	Synergies with other global sustainability agendas.	7, 8
	Focusing on accountability of key (and sometimes less visible) industries in demanding sustainable change (e.g., commodity traders).	7, 8
	Clear standards and protocols for reporting against targets on biodiversity and sustainable production and consumption, to be developed and used by all actors and stakeholders in the production and consumption chain.	3, 4, 5, 7, 8
	Gathering more data and establishing harmonized indicators to measure effectiveness and track progress of policies on sustainable consumption and production and links with biodiversity.	4, 7, 8
Lack of/weak regulation of unsustainable production and consumption.	Political will and integrative governance.	7, 8
Lack of a unified food system perspective using important complementarities of agriculture, fishery, and aquaculture to optimize nutritional value and biodiversity.	Progressive regulation by governments to support more sustainable production and consumption (i.e., national strategies and action plans for sustainable consumption and production) to enhance the power of environmental norms.	8
Conflicting objectives between stakeholders (e.g., nongovernmental organizations and companies) and within stakeholder groups (e.g., between government departments).	Taxation and levies to support biodiversity monitoring and research and pro-poor objectives in food supply chains; incorporating and supporting Life Cycle Assessment and standards.	4, 5, 7, 8
Lack of compliance by governments against CBD requirements related to food production and consumption.	Setting specific goals to national contexts, matching global targets; more effective compliance mechanisms within and beyond the CBD through greater accountability for industry and government practices.	7, 8
Strong resistance from corporate actors and lack of accountability for private sector and effects on biodiversity; industry lobbying and political power maintains business as usual.	Greater engagement and inclusive processes in CBD by agents beyond conservation professionals, including policy-makers and practitioners in economic, industry, and trade sectors.	7, 8
Lack of transparency of trade agreements, supply chains, and commodity prices.	Partnerships, businesses demonstrating leadership through use of science-based equitable commitments (including to “no net loss” and restoration activities), strengthening accountability, compliance, transparency, Life Cycle Assessment, and standards.	4, 5, 6, 7, 8
	Progressive laws and regulations to hold private sector to account (including in no net loss and restoration activities).	8
Uncertainties/complexity in understanding the direct and indirect impacts of food production and consumption patterns.	Mutual learning and support: connecting science and policy actors, indigenous and local knowledge; appreciating and exchanging respective multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary knowledges.	7, 8
Interdisciplinary scientific and local/indigenous knowledge undervalued.	Change in behavior at all levels (governments, business, producers, and consumers).	7, 8
Sociocultural factors and perceptions of individual rights, e.g., increasing meat consumption globally; inequality and uneven consumption patterns; and lack of consideration of food waste.	Shifts in individuals’ perspectives, including appreciation of diverse conceptualizations of links between food and nature through community education activities.	7, 8
	Learning how diverse and alternative visions and narratives of sustainability consider trade-offs and outcomes in relation to sustainable production and consumption of food.	7, 8