Table 1.
Definition of variables
| Variable | Definition | Year | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| COVID-19 death rate | 10,000*(cumulative death toll due to COVID-19/population) | 2020 | National ministries of health and statistical agencies |
| Population density | Total population per km2 (log) | 2019 | Eurostat |
| Population concentration | Presence of one or more cities with > 1,000,000 inhabitants | 2019 | Eurostat |
| Share of the population aged 75 or over | Number of populations aged 75 or older over total population | 2019 | Eurostat |
| GDP per capita | Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS) | 2018 | Eurostat |
| Unemployment rate | Number of unemployed persons as a percentage of the labour force | 2018 | Eurostat |
| Distance to EU targets | Index that estimates the distance of regions in relation to the EU2020S headline targetsa | 2010 | ESPON |
| General Medical Practitioners | 10,000*(number of GPs/population) | 2017 | Eurostat & NHS |
| Hospital beds | 10,000*(number of hospital beds/population) | 2017 | Eurostat & NHS |
| Social trust | Index of social trust (see Appendix A1 for construction) | 2014–2016 | European Social Survey |
aThis index measures the distance that regions are from achieving these four targets: (i) early leavers from education and training, (ii) the share of population aged 30-34 with tertiary education, (iii) the percent of GDP invested in R&D, and (iv) the employment rate for the population aged 20-65. A region would score 100 if it had reached all eight headline targets, whereas a region would score 0 if it was positioned the farthest away from all eight headline targets out of all regions in Europe. For more information about this index, see the SIESTA Final Scientific Report at https://www.espon.eu/programme/projects/espon-2013/applied-research/siesta-spatial-indicators-europe-2020-strategy