Table 1.

Verified obesogens with possible mechanisms of action and effects.

Verified obesogen	EDC type	Potential mechanisms	Effects	Reference
3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (3-BHA)	Food additive (Food preservative)	Phosphorylates cAMP- response element binding protein (CREB)	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes, increases lipid plasma levels	(118, 119, 125)
Acrylamide	Byproduct of frying, baking, or roasting	Acts through mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and adenosine 5′-monophosphate–activated protein kinase–acetyl-CoA carboxylase (AMPK-ACC)	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes, increases accumulation of lipid droplets in 3T3-L1 cells	(108)
Bisphenol A (BPA)	Plasticizer	PPARγ activator, interferes with estrogen signaling	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes, induces obesity in vivo, promotes transgenerational inheritance of obesity	(154, 175, 176)
Carboxylmethylcellulose	Food additive (dietary emulsifier)	PPARγ activator	Induces adipogenesis in vitro, induces obesity in vivo, disrupts gut microbiome, promotes intestinal inflammation	(114, 115, 118)
Dibutyltin (DBT)	Organotin	PPARγ and RXR activator, induces expression of inflammatory genes	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and MSCs into adipocytes, induces insulin resistance	(158, 160, 161)
p,p-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE)	Pesticide (metabolite of DDT)	Currently unknown	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes, induces obesity in vivo	(145, 177, 178)
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)	Pesticide	Currently unknown	Impairs thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT), promotes diet induced insulin resistance, promotes transgenerational inheritance of obesity	(98, 100, 143)
di-2-ethylhexyl (DEHP)	Phthalates	Promotes expression of adipogenic genes	Increases adipogenesis and lipid accumulation in vitro, induces obesityin vivo	(97, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183)
Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DOSS)	Food additive (dietary emulsifier, surfactant)	PPARγ activator	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes, induces obesity in vivo	(114, 118)
Glyphosate	Pesticide (herbicide)	Currently unknown	Promotes transgenerational inheritance of obesity	(101)
Imidacloprid	Pesticide (insecticide)	Alters regulation of AMP-activated protein kinase-α (AMPKα), alters genes regulating glucose metabolism (i.e. GLUT4, PDK4)	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes and insulin resistance after exposure to high-fat diet	(146, 147)
Mono-2-ethylhexyl (MEHP)	Phthalates	PPARγ activator	Increases adipogenesis and lipid accumulation in vitro, induces obesityin vivo	(179, 180, 182, 184)
Monosodium glutamate (MSG)	Food additive (flavor enhancer)	Antagonizes androgen receptor action and/or impairs secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes	(125, 126)
Nonylphenol	Product of microbial degradation of alkylphenol ethoxylate	Induces hyperadrenalism and type 1 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase expression in adipose tissue, promotes expression of adipogenic genes	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes Induces obesity in vivo	(68, 128, 129)
P-80	Food additive (dietary emulsifier)	PPARγ activator	Induces adipogenesis in vitro, induces obesity in vivo, disrupts gut microbiome, promotes intestinal inflammation	(114, 115, 118)
Parabens	Cosmetics, food and pharmaceutical additive	PPARγ activator	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and mesenchymal C3H10T12 cells, induces obesity and hyperphagia in vivo by hypermethylating POMC enhancer	(72, 135, 136, 141)
Span-80	Food additive (surfactant)	RXRα activator	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes, induces obesity in vivo	(116, 117, 118)
Tributyltin (TBT)	Organotin	PPARγ and RXRα activator	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and MSCs into adipocytes, alters lipid metabolism, promotes transgenerational inheritance of obesity	(77, 78, 79, 81, 82)
Triflumizole	Pesticide	PPARγ activator, promotes expression of adipogenic genes	Induces adipogenesis in uncommitted mBMSCs, promotes differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes, induces obesity in vivo	(76, 185)
Triphenyltin	Organotin	PPARγ activator, promotes expression of adipogenic genes	Induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes	(76)

cAMP, cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate; GLUT4, glucose transporter 4; PDK4, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isozyme 4; PPAR, peroxisome-proliferator activated receptor; RXR, retinoid X receptor.