TABLE 3.

Summary of studies that applied axial disc compression

	Time (hrs)	Applied load (N)	Applied stress (MPa)	Species	Comparable in vivo activity
Adams 260	4		***	Human	Body weight (BW)
Koeller 281 , 282	0.08	950	0.52	Human	Holding <20 kg near body
Kolditz 283	24		0.60	Human	Holding 20 kg near body
			1.20		High Loading
Keller 28	0.5	***	***	Human	Adjusted by BW
Ohshima 284	24	49‐294	0.06‐0.34	Porcine	Lying supine to walking
Holmes 285	0.5‐6	1600	0.88	Human	High loading
Li 286	1	***	***	Human	Adjusted by BW
Ekstrom 287	0.22	50	0.06	Porcine	Lying supine
		100	0.11		Less than slouched sitting
Riches 288	0.33		1.00	Human	High loading
Palmer 289	0.33		0.40	Murine	Mid‐range during walking
			0.80		High loading
Sarver 290	0.5	0.25	0.25	Murine	Sitting relaxed
Boxberger 122	0.75	4.5	0.28	Rat	Standing
Johannessen 262	2	200	0.50	Ovine	Holding <20 kg near body
Heuer 130	0.25	500	0.27	Human	Sitting relaxed
Luo 111	2	1000	0.55	Human	Holding <20 kg near body
Masuoka 103	0.15		1.00	Rat‐tail	High loading
	1.5
	15
O'Connell 121 , 291 , 292	0.33	1000	0.55	Human	Holding <20 kg near body
Korecki 293	1		0.20	Bovine	Sitting
Barbir 274	0.5	12.5	0.78	Rat	High loading
Pollintine 278	0.5	1150	0.85	Human	High loading
	1
	2
Campana 294	0.17	400	0.27	Human	Sitting Relaxed
Hwang 295	1.67		1.00	Rat‐tail	High Loading
Holguin 296	1	6	0.37	Rat	Mid‐range during walking
Martin 297	1	1.5	1.19	Murine‐tail	High Loading
van der Veen 298	24		0.80	Human	High Loading
Bailey 299	0.33		0.50	Murine	Holding <20 kg near body
Pei 300	0.08	200	0.32	Ovine	Sitting with straight back
		600	0.95		High Loading
		1000	1.59		High Loading
Bezci 190	4	200	0.41	Bovine	Mid‐range during walking
		1000	2.04		High loading
Schmidt 277	8		0.50	Bovine	Holding <20 kg near body
Russo 141	1		0.25	Ovine	Sitting Relaxed

Note: For studies that did not report stress, applied stress was calculated by using either the average disc area reported in the paper or species‐specific disc area from data in O'Connell et al and/or Beckstein et al (italicized stress values). ⁹⁹ , ¹²¹ Applied stress was then compared to in vivo loading conditions using data provided in Table 2. Bovine discs are acquired from the caudal region of the spine due to cuts made in the lumbar spine for the meat industry. All other discs were taken from the lumbar region unless specified (eg, for rat or mouse).