Table 1.
Clinical characteristics of study subjects
| Time 1 | Time 2 | Time 3 | Time 4 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Diabetes (n = 144) | Control (n = 72) | Diabetes (n = 144) | Control (n = 70) | Diabetes (n = 144) | Control (n = 70) | Diabetes (n = 137) | Control (n = 66) | |
| Age (years) | 7.0 ± 1.7 | 7.0 ± 1.8 | 8.5 ± 1.7 | 8.5 ± 1.8 | 11.2 ± 1.9 | 11.6 ± 1.7 | 13.2 ± 1.9 | 13.6 ± 1.7 |
| Range | 4.0–10.0 | 4.1–10.0 | 5.4–11.5 | 5.6–11.5 | 7.4–14.4 | 7.5–14.8 | 9.5–16.4 | 9.6–16.8 |
| Female sex | 66 (46) | 34 (47) | 66 (46) | 33 (47) | 61 (42) | 34 (49) | 58 (42) | 33 (50) |
| Race/ethnicity* | ||||||||
| White | 117 (81) | 59 (82) | 117 (81) | 58 (83) | 120 (83) | 62 (89) | 115 (84) | 58 (88) |
| Hispanic/Latino | 10 (7) | 4 (6) | 10 (7) | 4 (6) | 10 (7) | 3 (4) | 9 (7) | 3 (5) |
| African American | 6 (4) | 4 (6) | 6 (4) | 4 (6) | 6 (4) | 3 (4) | 5 (4) | 3 (5) |
| Asian | 2 (1) | 0 (0) | 2 (1) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
| Other | 9 (6) | 2 (3) | 9 (6) | 2 (3) | 7 (5) | 1 (1) | 7 (5) | 1 (2) |
| Height (cm) | 121.9 ± 11.8 | 121.7 ± 11.5 | 130.4 ± 11.7 | 131.4 ± 11.2 | 147.1 ± 13.1 | 150.3 ± 12.4 | 158.4 ± 12.2 | 160.9 ± 12.2 |
| BMI percentile | ||||||||
| Median (25th, 75th) | 71.8 (58.9, 86.1) | 60.8 (34.5, 79.9) | 69.3 (52.3, 84.7) | 63.1 (33.3, 81.1) | 67.2 (47.7, 83.9) | 61.2 (34.0, 91.3) | 72.5 (44.7, 85.8) | 63.8 (41.0, 90.4) |
| Range | 4–99 | 4–99 | 10–96 | 0–99 | 7–99 | 1–100 | 2–100 | 0–100 |
| Breast Tanner stage (girls), % | ||||||||
| I | 100 | 100 | 91 | 91 | 38 | 27 | 12 | 12 |
| II–III | 0 | 0 | 9 | 9 | 41 | 44 | 14 | 27 |
| IV–V | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 21 | 29 | 72 | 61 |
| Genital Tanner stage (boys), % | ||||||||
| I | 100 | 100 | 91 | 91 | 58 | 44 | 24 | 24 |
| II–III | 0 | 0 | 9 | 9 | 31 | 36 | 32 | 27 |
| IV–V | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 19 | 38 | 49 |
| HbA1c | ||||||||
| % | 7.9 ± 0.9 | 5.2 ± 0.2 | 7.9 ± 0.9 | 5.2 ± 0.3 | 8.1 ± 1.0 | 5.3 ± 0.2 | 8.3 ± 1.3 | 5.4 ± 0.3† |
| Range | 6.3–10.2 | 4.7–5.8 | 6.0–10.8 | 4.6–5.8 | 5.6–10.9 | 4.6–5.9 | 5.5–13.9 | 4.8–6.1 |
| mmol/mol | 62 ± 12 | 34 ± 9 | 62 ± 15 | 33 ± 3 | 64 ± 12 | 34 ± 3 | 67 ± 14 | 35 ± 3 |
| Diabetes duration (years) | NA | NA | NA | NA | ||||
| Median (25th, 75th) | 2.4 (1.1, 4.4) | 3.9 (2.6, 5.8) | 6.4 (4.8, 8.6) | 8.5 (7.1, 10.8) | ||||
| Range | 0.1–7.9 | 1.5–9.5 | 0.9–11 | 3.4–13.7 | ||||
| Age at onset (years) | 4.1 ± 1.9 | NA | 4.1 ± 1.9 | NA | 4.5 ± 2.1 | NA | 4.4 ± 2.1 | NA |
| Range | 0.9–8.5 | 0.9–8.5 | 0.9–11.0 | 0.9–11.0 | ||||
| HbA1c AUC >6%‡ | 2.1 ± 0.7 | NA | 2.1 ± 0.7 | NA | 1.9 ± 0.7 | NA | 2.0 ± 0.7 | NA |
| Insulin dose (units/kg/day) | 0.7 ± 0.2 | NA | 0.8 ± 0.2 | NA | 0.9 ± 0.2 | NA | 0.96 ± 0.25 | NA |
| Pump users, % | 55 | NA | 72 | NA | 72 | NA | 79 | NA |
| Severe hypoglycemia history& | 24 (17) | NA | 28 (19) | NA | 22 (15) | NA | 25 (18) | NA |
| DKA history& | 51 (35) | NA | 52 (36) | NA | 46 (32) | NA | 48 (35) | NA |
| Sensor glucose (mg/dL) | 194 ± 37 | NA | 192 ± 33 | NA | 195 ± 40 | NA | 195 ± 35 | NA |
| % Glucose | ||||||||
| 70–180 | 45.8 ± 15.7 | NA | 45.1 ± 13.8 | NA | 43.8 ± 16.6 | NA | 44.7 ± 14.0 | NA |
| >180 | 49.6 ± 17.1 | 49.1 ± 15.4 | 50.6 ± 18.9 | 50.6 ± 16.2 | ||||
| >250 | 26.1 ± 15.3 | 25.5 ± 13.8 | 26.5 ± 16.1 | 25.6 ± 15.2 | ||||
| <70 | 4.6 ± 5.5 | 5.8 ± 5.7 | 5.6 ± 5.4 | 4.7 ± 5.2 | ||||
| <60 | 2.6 ± 4.3 | 3.5 ± 4.6 | 3.2 ± 3.7 | 2.5 ± 3.3 | ||||
| Parent education level | ||||||||
| <12th grade | 3 (2) | 3 (4) | 3 (2) | 3 (4) | 1 (1) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) | 0 (0) |
| 12th grade | 28 (19) | 9 (13) | 28 (19) | 9 (13) | 23 (16) | 6 (9) | 22 (16) | 5 (8) |
| Associate | 27 (19) | 6 (9) | 27 (19) | 6 (9) | 29 (20) | 10 (14) | 29 (21) | 9 (14) |
| Bachelor’s | 48 (33) | 21 (30) | 48 (33) | 21 (30) | 48 (33) | 23 (33) | 46 (34) | 23 (35) |
| Master’s | 29 (20) | 18 (26) | 29 (20) | 18 (26) | 33 (23) | 18 (26) | 30 (22) | 17 (26) |
| Doctoral | 7 (5) | 4 (6) | 7 (5) | 4 (6) | 7 (5) | 9 (13) | 6 (4) | 8 (12) |
Data are mean ± SD or n (%) unless otherwise indicated. NA, not applicable.
*
The sum of percentages <100% in a category is due to missing data (e.g., race/ethnicity, education level).
†
One control subject who had done the study from the inception had an HbA1c of 6.1% at time 4, despite normal and postprandial glucoses and negative diabetes autoantibodies.
‡
Average excess glucose since diagnosis, where excess glucose is HbA1c >6% integrated with trapezoidal rule across visits. Calculated as cumulative lifetime excess glucose divided by diabetes duration.
&
The numbers at each time 1–4 refer to the episodes since diagnosis.