Table 2.

Summary statistics of study outcomes and sample characteristics

	Full sample	Long-term use sample
	Mean	Mean
Opioid-related events (%)
Any ED or inpatient	0.099	0.373
ED visit	0.040	0.145
Inpatient admission	0.067	0.255
Opioid poisoning events (%)
Any ED or inpatient	0.027	0.102
ED visit	0.014	0.046
Inpatient admission	0.014	0.059
Characteristics (%)
Insurance
Employer based	69.64	43.00
Individual market	3.75	1.93
Medicare Advantage	26.62	55.08
Age group
18–24 years	9.09	1.27
25–34 years	14.04	5.03
35–44 years	16.35	9.97
45–54 years	18.98	18.30
55–64 years	17.56	23.74
65–74 years	14.62	23.42
75–84 years	7.08	13.39
85+ years	2.28	4.86
Female	54.69	58.64
Any mental health condition	13.83	24.63
Alcohol use disorder	0.62	1.19
Drug use disorder	0.88	2.78
Tobacco use	2.63	4.81
Back pain	15.60	34.95
Neck pain	6.13	12.39
Arthritis pain	28.61	51.42
Other pain	13.81	25.11
Number of observations	31,482,222	2,088,000
Number of unique patients	6,423,416	358,940

Notes: Full sample are adults (ages 18+) with private insurance or Medicare Advantage who had filled at least one opioid prescription during study years, did not have a diagnosis of cancer or sickle cell, and were living in states that had an operational PDMP by December 2010. Long-term use sample are patients with at least one long-term episode during study years. A long-term opioid episode was defined as continuous use of prescription opioids for 90 days or longer; a gap of 30 days or more with no opioid use was used to determine the end of a long-term opioid use episode. The unit of analysis was patient half-year.