Table 2.
Demographic, socioeconomic, nutritional, behavioural and utilisation of health service characteristics by vitamin D status
| Exposure variables | 25(OH)D level | Sufficient (n=369) |
Insufficient (n=232) |
Deficient (n=366) |
Severely deficient (n=184) |
| Median(25%–75%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | |
| Demographic variables | |||||
| Age | |||||
| <28 | 22.90 (14.40–37.20) | 222 (60.20) | 113 (48.71) | 162 (44.26) | 98 (53.26) |
| 28– | 19.20 (13.20–31.10) | 147 (39.80) | 119 (51.29)** | 204 (55.74)*** | 86 (46.74) |
| BMI | |||||
| <24 | 21.20 (13.60–35.30) | 244 (66.12) | 147 (63.36) | 236 (64.48) | 116 (63.04) |
| 24– | 21.80 (14.40–34.50) | 92 (24.93) | 58 (25.00) | 85 (23.22) | 44 (23.91) |
| 28– | 19.30 (12.80–31.25) | 33 (8.94) | 27 (11.64) | 45 (12.30) | 24 (13.04) |
| Gravidity | |||||
| 0 | 22.90 (14.25–37.80) | 119 (32.25) | 53 (22.94) | 78 (21.37) | 51 (27.72) |
| 1 | 23.20 (14.10–35.70) | 159 (43.09) | 97 (41.99) | 132 (36.16) | 61 (33.51) |
| ≥2 | 18.40 (12.70–28.30) | 91 (24.66) | 81 (35.06)** | 155 (42.47)*** | 72 (39.13)** |
| History of chronic diseases | |||||
| No | 20.80 (13.55–34.65) | 327 (88.62) | 206 (88.79) | 323 (88.25) | 165 (89.67) |
| Yes | 21.35 (14.30–34.65) | 42 (11.38) | 26 (11.21) | 43 (11.75) | 19 (10.33) |
| Socioeconomic status | |||||
| Women’s education | |||||
| High school or above | 24.30 (14.90–38.40) | 126 (34.24) | 51 (21.98) | 93 (25.48) | 40 (21.74) |
| Junior high or below | 20.15 (13.20–32.18) | 242 (65.76) | 181 (78.02)* | 272 (74.52)* | 144 (78.26)** |
| Husband’s education | |||||
| High school or above | 22.40 (14.10–37.40) | 128 (34.69) | 58 (25.00) | 103 (28.14) | 51 (21.72) |
| Junior high or below | 20.40 (13.33–32.45) | 241 (65.31) | 174 (75.00)* | 263 (71.86) | 133 (72.28) |
| Women’s occupation | |||||
| Others | 20.40 (13.23–36.30) | 79 (21.41) | 45 (19.40) | 74 (20.22) | 45 (24.46) |
| Unemployed or farmers | 21.10 (13.60–34.20) | 290 (78.59) | 187 (80.60) | 292 (79.78) | 139 (75.54) |
| Husband’s occupation | |||||
| Others | 19.70 (12.70–33.20) | 210 (57.22) | 143 (62.17) | 232 (63.74) | 136 (73.91) |
| Unemployed or farmers | 23.60 (12.23–32.58) | 157 (42.78) | 87 (37.83) | 132 (36.26) | 48 (26.09)*** |
| Household annual income (¥) | |||||
| ≥10 000 | 23.00 (14.60–37.70) | 278 (75.34) | 122 (52.59) | 223 (61.26) | 86 (46.74) |
| <10 000 | 18.50 (11.53–27.38) | 91 (24.66) | 110 (47.41)*** | 141 (38.74)*** | 98 (53.26)*** |
| Household income for expenditure | |||||
| Surplus | 25.80 (14.70–39.60) | 189 (51.22) | 65 (28.02) | 110 (30.14) | 55 (29.89) |
| Inadequate or deficit | 19.15 (13.05–29.58) | 180 (48.78) | 167 (71.98)*** | 255 (69.86)*** | 129 (70.11)*** |
| SES index | |||||
| High | 24.50 (14.70–38.70) | 161 (43.99) | 57 (24.78) | 107 (29.56) | 47 (25.54) |
| Middle | 20.50 (13.30–35.10) | 124 (33.88) | 71 (30.87) | 124 (34.25) | 64 (34.78) |
| Low | 19.90 (12.95–27.90) | 81 (22.13) | 102 (44.35)*** | 131 (36.19)*** | 73 (39.67)*** |
| Nutritional factors | |||||
| Nutritional supplement | |||||
| No | 19.50 (13.10–31.15) | 231 (62.60) | 179 (77.16) | 293 (80.05) | 144 (78.26) |
| Yes | 26.30 (14.88–40.33) | 138 (37.40) | 53 (22.84)*** | 73 (19.95)*** | 40 (21.74)*** |
| Meat intake | |||||
| Once or more per week | 21.70 (14.70–36.30) | 220 (59.62) | 130 (56.30) | 213 (58.20) | 84 (45.65) |
| Less than once per week | 19.80 (12.30–32.40) | 149 (40.38) | 102 (43.97) | 153 (41.80) | 100 (54.35)** |
| Fish intake | |||||
| Once or more per month | 23.30 (14.70–36.80) | 91 (24.66) | 39 (16.81) | 81 (22.13) | 24 (13.04) |
| Less than once per month | 20.40 (13.20–34.00) | 278 (75.34) | 193 (83.19)* | 285 (77.87) | 160 (86.96)** |
| Egg intake | |||||
| Every day | 24.15 (14.50–36.60) | 143 (38.75) | 60 (25.86) | 102 (27.95) | 49 (26.63) |
| 4–6 times per week | 23.70 (16.10–38.18) | 101 (27.37) | 71 (30.60) | 82 (22.47) | 27 (14.67) |
| ≤3 times per week | 17.90 (11.70–29.00) | 125 (33.88) | 101 (43.53)** | 181 (49.59)*** | 108 (58.70)*** |
| Milk or dairy product intake | |||||
| ≥4 times per week | 23.20 (14.70–37.90) | 89 (24.12) | 26 (11.21) | 68 (18.63) | 24 (13.04) |
| <4 times per week but at least once per month | 19.35 (12.40–32.30) | 96 (26.02) | 73 (31.47) | 118 (32.33) | 59 (32.07) |
| Almost never | 21.15 (13.40–33.63) | 184 (49.86) | 133 (57.33)*** | 179 (49.04) | 101 (54.89)** |
| Beans and soy product intake | |||||
| Every day | 22.90 (15.10–34.60) | 103 (27.91) | 57 (24.57) | 102 (27.95) | 28 (15.22) |
| 4–6 times per week | 23.80 (16.60–34.50) | 76 (20.60) | 66 (28.45) | 66 (18.08) | 22 (11.96) |
| 1–3 times per week | 20.70 (12.48–35.13) | 92 (24.93) | 61 (26.29) | 93 (25.48) | 56 (30.43) |
| Less than once per week | 17.90 (10.20–35.10) | 98 (26.56) | 48 (20.69) | 104 (28.49) | 78 (42.39)*** |
| Vegetable and fruit intake | |||||
| Every day | 19.70 (12.90–33.30) | 256 (69.38) | 159 (68.53) | 273 (74.59) | 152 (82.61) |
| Less than once per day | 23.90 (15.20–36.30) | 113 (30.62) | 73 (31.47) | 93 (25.41) | 32 (17.39)** |
| Behavioural factors | |||||
| Picky eating habits | |||||
| No | 20.70 (13.63–33.30) | 323 (87.53) | 221 (95.26) | 346 (94.79) | 164 (89.13) |
| Yes | 27.10 (11.90–43.20) | 46 (12.47) | 11 (4.74)** | 19 (5.21)** | 20 (10.87) |
| Passive smoking | |||||
| No | 24.35 (14.75–37.13) | 171 (46.34) | 90 (38.79) | 127 (34.70) | 59 (32.07) |
| Yes | 19.30 (12.80–32.30) | 198 (53.66) | 142 (61.21) | 239 (65.30)** | 125 (67.93)** |
| Physical exercise | |||||
| No | 20.00 (13.30–33.80) | 298 (80.76) | 200 (86.21) | 329 (90.38) | 161 (87.50) |
| Yes | 27.65 (16.60–38.48) | 71 (19.24) | 32 (13.79) | 35 (9.62)*** | 23 (12.50)* |
| Utilisation of health services | |||||
| Accept eugenic publicity | |||||
| No | 18.40 (12.33–30.98) | 156 (42.74) | 115 (45.70) | 216 (59.50) | 109 (59.24) |
| Yes | 24.40 (15.00–37.40) | 209 (57.26) | 113 (49.56) | 147 (40.50)*** | 75 (40.76)*** |
| Accept physical examination during the past year | |||||
| No | 18.15 (11.78–29.60) | 176 (47.83) | 135 (58.44) | 246 (68.33) | 149 (80.98) |
| Yes | 27.20 (17.40–39.20) | 192 (52.17) | 96 (41.56)* | 114 (31.67)*** | 35 (19.02)*** |
*P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001.
BMI, body mass index; 25(OH)D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D; SES, socioeconomic status.