Table 2 .

Association between gluten intake (independent variable) and markers of metabolic health (dependent variable) depending on sex in multiple linear regression analyses

Dependent variable	n	Adjusted R2	Independent variable	B	β	SE	t value	Raw p value	Holm-adjusted p value
Percentage body fat	30,460	0.50	Gluten intake male	− 3.1 × 10−2	− 2.8 × 10−2	7.9 × 10−3	− 3.863	0.0001	0.0020
			Gluten intake female	3.6 × 10−2	2.5 × 10−2	9.6 × 10−3	3.769	0.0002	0.0028
Lg10 WC	30,460	0.33	Gluten intake male	− 6.7 × 10−5	− 8.2 × 10−3	6.9 × 10−5	− 0.976	0.3291	1.0000
			Gluten intake Female	4.5 × 10−4	4.1 × 10−2	8.3 × 10−5	5.346	<0.0001	<0.0001
Lg10 WHR	30,459	0.49	Gluten intake male	− 2.7 × 10−5	− 4.6 × 10−3	4.3 × 10−5	− 0.635	0.5257	1.0000
			Gluten intake female	6.2 × 10−5	8.0 × 10−3	5.2 × 10−5	1.202	0.2292	1.0000
Lg10 WHtR	30,460	0.17	Gluten intake male	− 1.1 × 10−4	− 1.4 × 10−2	7.0 × 10−5	− 1.534	0.1251	1.0000
			Gluten intake female	4.0 × 10−4	4.0 × 10−2	8.5 × 10−5	4.735	<0.0001	<0.0001
Lg10 BMI (kg/m²)	30,460	0.11	Gluten intake male	− 1.1 × 10−4	− 1.2 × 10−2	8.5 × 10−5	− 1.268	0.2049	1.0000
			Gluten intake female	5.0 × 10−4	4.3 × 10−2	1.0 × 10−4	4.872	<0.0001	<0.0001
Lg10 SBP (mmHg)	30,454	0.19	Gluten intake male	2.7 × 10−5	3.4 × 10−3	7.3 × 10−5	0.365	0.7151	1.0000
			Gluten intake female	− 7.9 × 10−5	− 7.5 × 10−3	8.8 × 10−5	− 0.890	0.3734	1.0000
Lg10 DBP (mmHg)	30,454	0.12	Gluten intake male	− 7.1 × 10−5	− 9.5 × 10−3	7.2 × 10−5	− 0.990	0.3220	1.0000
			Gluten intake female	− 2.1 × 10−4	− 2.1 × 10−2	8.7 × 10−5	− 2.426	0.0153	0.2136
HbA1c (mmol/mol)	28,371	0.35	Gluten intake male	1.0 × 10−2	1.4 × 10−2	6.4 × 10−3	1.606	0.1084	1.0000
			Gluten intake female	− 4.4 × 10−3	− 4.4 × 10−3	7.8 × 10−3	− 0.560	0.5757	1.0000
Lg10 total cholesterol (mmol/l)	28,740	0.21	Gluten intake male	− 3.5 × 10−4	− 3.1 × 10−2	1.1 × 10−4	− 3.302	0.0010	0.0154
			Gluten intake female	− 7.4 × 10−4	− 5.0 × 10−2	1.3 × 10−4	− 5.766	<0.0001	<0.0001
LDL cholesterol (mmol/l)	28,688	0.19	Gluten intake male	− 2.5 × 10−3	− 2.2 × 10−2	1.1 × 10−3	− 2.322	0.0203	0.2632
			Gluten intake female	− 5.1 × 10−3	− 3.5 × 10−2	1.3 × 10−3	− 4.023	<0.0001	0.0011
Lg10 HDL cholesterol (mmol/l)	26,184	0.31	Gluten intake male	− 7.5 × 10−4	− 5.2 × 10−2	1.4 × 10−4	− 5.588	<0.0001	<0.0001
			Gluten intake female	− 1.3 × 10−3	− 6.8 × 10−2	1.6 × 10−4	− 7.985	<0.0001	<0.0001
Lg10 triglyceride (mmol/l)	28,728	0.20	Gluten intake male	1.3 × 10−3	4.3 × 10−2	2.8 × 10−4	4.484	<0.0001	0.0001
			Gluten intake female	9.7 × 10−4	2.5 × 10−2	3.4 × 10−4	2.871	0.0041	0.0613
Lg10 CRP (mg/dl)	28,678	0.23	Gluten intake male	− 2.5 × 10−4	− 4.2 × 10−3	5.4 × 10−4	− 0.456	0.6487	1.0000
			Gluten intake female	1.1 × 10−3	1.4 × 10−2	6.6 × 10−4	1.604	0.1088	1.0000
GFR (ml/min)	28,677	0.09	Gluten intake	− 8.1 × 10−2	− 3.1 × 10−2	1.6 × 10−2	− 4.987	<0.0001	<0.0001

The results of the multiple linear regression analyses are expressed in terms of the non-standardized coefficient beta (B), standardized coefficient beta (β), and the adjusted coefficient of determination (R²). Holm adjustment was used to control for multiple comparisons. All models were adjusted for sex, age, smoking status, ethnic background, qualifications, total household income per year, energy intake, and physical activity. Since age, sex, and ethnic background are included when calculating GFR, these parameters were removed from the model with GFR as dependent variable. Furthermore, additional covariates were included in models with the following dependent variables. SBP and DBP percentage body fat, blood pressure medication; HbA1c percentage body fat, diabetes status; Total, LDL, HDL cholesterol, triglyceride percentage body fat, lipid-lowering medication, fiber intake; CRP percentage body fat, lipid-lowering medication; GFR percentage body fat, diabetes status. Abbreviations are indicated in Table 1. SE standard error