TABLE 2.
Meta‐analyses of associations between access to fast‐food restaurants (FFRs) and weight status
| Author (Year)[ref] | Study Design 1 | Study Area [Scale] 2 | Sample Size | FFR Measures | Weight‐related Outcomes | Estimated Effect | Pooled Effect Size (95% CI) | I 2 Index |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Presence of FFRs and overweight/obesity (N = 13) | ||||||||
| Hamano (2017) 32 | LO | Sweden [N] | 944 487 | Presence of FFRs within 1‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Hospital or out‐patient diagnosis of childhood obesity |
OR (95% CI) 0.99 (0.94‐1.05) |
OR (95% CI) 1.01 (0.97‐1.05) random |
50% |
| Leung (2011) 35 | LO | California, USA [CT4] | 353 | Presence of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffers around home | Overweight/obesity (BMI percentile ≥85th on the 2000 US CDC growth charts) |
OR (95% CI) 0.82 (0.28‐2.44) |
||
| Correa (2018) 54 | CS | Florianopolis, Brazil [C] | 2195 | Presence of FFRs within 0.4‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Overweight/Obesity (BMI z‐score > +1SD based on the 2007 WHO growth reference, equivalent to BMI ≥25 kg/m2 in adults) |
OR (95% CI) 1.00 (0.75‐1.34) |
||
| Crawford (2008) 55 | CS | Melbourne, Australia [C] | 380 | Presence of FFRs within 2‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Overweight/obesity based on IOTF cut‐offs, equivalent to BMI ≥25 kg/m2 in adults |
OR (95% CI) 8‐ to 9‐year‐old boys: 1.52 (0.84‐2.76); 8‐ to 9‐year‐old girls: 0.48 (0.06‐3.60); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old boys: 0.63 (0.19‐2.10); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old girls: 0.19 (0.09‐0.41) 0.56 (0.17‐1.84) random |
||
| Davis (2009) 57 | CS | California, USA [S] | 529 367 | Presence of FFRs within 0.8 km from school | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 1.06 (1.02‐1.10) |
||
| Heroux (2012) 69 | CS | Canada, Scotland, and the USA [N3] | 26 778 | Presence of FFRs within 1‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Overweight/obesity based on IOTF cut‐offs, equivalent to BMI ≥25 kg/m2 in adults |
OR (95% CI) Canadian youth (n = 11 945): 0.92 (0.83‐1.03); Scottish youth (n = 4697): 0.94 (0.74‐1.20); US youth (n = 4928): 1.08 (0.96‐1.21) 0.98 (0.88‐1.10) random |
||
| Mellor (2011) 91 | CS | Virginia, USA [S] | 2023 | Presence of FFRs within 0.16‐/0.4‐/0.8‐/1.6‐km road‐network buffers around home | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.16‐km buffer zone: 3.83 (0.94‐15.63); 0.4‐km buffer zone: 1.05 (0.67‐1.65); 0.8‐km buffer zone: 1.19 (0.80‐1.77); 1.6‐km buffer zone: 0.94 (0.64‐1.39) 1.09 (0.86‐1.38) fixed |
||
| Miller (2014) 92 | CS | Perth, Australia [C] | 1850 | Presence of FFRs within 0.8‐km road‐network buffer around home | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.691 (0.529‐0.903) |
||
| Ohri‐Vachaspati (2015) 93 | CS | New Jersey, USA [S] | 560 | Presence of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around home | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.67 (0.38‐1.20) |
||
| Oreskovic (2009) 95 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 21 008 | Presence of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around home | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 1.05 (0.98‐1.12) |
||
| Seliske (2009) 102 | CS | Canada [N] | 7281 | Presence of FFRs within 1‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Overweight/obesity based on IOTF cut‐offs, equivalent to BMI ≥25 kg/m2 in adults |
OR (95% CI) 0.83 (0.70‐0.98) |
||
| Shier (2016) 104 | CS | USA [N] | 903 | Parent‐perceived presence of FFRs within 20‐min walk from home | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) |
β (SE) 0.020 (0.030) OR (95% CI) 1.02 (0.96‐1.08) |
||
| Tang (2014) 107 | CS | New Jersey, USA [C4] | 12 954 | Presence of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around school | Overweight/obesity (BMI percentile ≥85th) |
β (95% CI) 0.03 (−0.004 to 0.06) OR (95% CI) 1.03 (1.00‐1.07) |
||
| Presence of FFRs and obesity (N = 4) | ||||||||
| Hamano (2017) 32 | LO | Sweden [N] | 944 487 | Presence of FFRs within 1‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Hospital or out‐patient diagnosis of childhood obesity |
OR (95% CI) 0.99 (0.94‐1.05) |
OR (95% CI) 1.04 (0.99‐1.09) random |
42% |
| Davis (2009) 57 | CS | California, USA [S] | 529 367 | Presence of FFRs within 0.8 km from school | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 1.07 (1.02‐1.12) |
||
| Mellor (2011) 91 | CS | Virginia, USA [S] | 2023 | Presence of FFRs within 0.16/0.4/0.8/1.6‐km road‐network buffers around home | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.16‐km buffer zone: 3.83 (0.94‐15.63); 0.4‐km buffer zone: 1.05 (0.67‐1.65); 0.8‐km buffer zone: 1.19 (0.80‐1.77); 1.6‐km buffer zone: 0.94 (0.64‐1.39) 1.09 (0.86‐1.38) fixed |
||
| Oreskovic (2009) 95 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 21 008 | Presence of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around home | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 1.06 (0.98‐1.14) |
||
| Number of FFRs and overweight/obesity (N = 15) | ||||||||
| Bader (2013) 45 | CS | New York, USA [C] | 94 348 | Number of FFRs in the residential census tract | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2011 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.972 (0.957‐0.988) |
OR (95% CI) 1.00 (0.99‐1.01) random |
89% |
| Choo (2017) 20 | CS | Seoul, South Korea [C] | 126 | Number of Western FFRs within 0.2‐km straight‐line buffer around community child centre | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile or BMI >25 kg/m2) based on the 2012 guidelines of Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
OR (95% CI) 0.87 (0.608‐1.245) |
||
| Crawford (2008) 55 | CS | Melbourne, Australia [C] | 380 | Number of FFRs within 2‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Overweight/obesity based on IOTF cut‐offs, equivalent to BMI ≥25 kg/m2 in adults |
OR (95% CI) 8‐ to 9‐year‐old boys: 0.96 (0.84‐1.10); 8‐ to 9‐year‐old girls: 0.82 (0.63‐1.08); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old boys: 0.91 (0.78‐1.06); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old girls: 0.86 (0.74‐0.99) 0.90 (0.83‐0.98) fixed |
||
| Fraser (2010) 62 | CS | Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK [C] | 33 594 | Number of FFRs in residential super‐output area (SOA) | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) |
OR (95% CI) 1.01 (1.002‐1.02) |
||
| Gorski Findling (2018) 65 | CS | USA [N] | 3748 | Number of FFRs within 1.6‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.99 (0.96‐1.02) |
||
| Larsen (2015) 83 | CS | Toronto, Canada [C] | 943 | Number of FFRs within 1‐km road‐network buffer around home | Overweight and obesity based on IOTF cut‐offs, equivalent to BMI ≥25 kg/m2 in adults |
OR (95% CI) 0.978 (0.953‐1.003) |
||
| Leatherdale (2011) 87 | CS | Ontario, Canada [S] | 1207 | Number of FFRs within 1‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Obesity (BMI percentile ≥95th based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts) |
OR (95% CI) 0.96 (0.82‐1.13) |
||
| Mellor (2011) 91 | CS | Virginia, USA [S] | 2023 | Number of FFRs within 0.16‐/0.4‐/0.8‐/1.6‐km road‐network buffer around home | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.16‐km buffer zone: 3.07 (0.75‐12.59); 0.4‐km buffer zone: 1.04 (0.92‐1.19); 0.8‐km buffer zone: 0.97 (0.89‐1.06); 1.6‐km buffer zone: 0.98 (0.94‐1.03) 0.98 (0.95‐1.02) fixed |
||
| Miller (2014) 92 | CS | Perth, Australia [C] | 1850 | Number of FFRs within 0.8‐/3‐km road‐network buffer around home | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.8‐km buffer zone: 0.961 (0.919‐1.006); 3‐km buffer zone: 0.993 (0.988‐0.999) 0.98 (0.96‐1.01) random |
||
| Oreskovic (2009) 94 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 6680 | Number of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around home | Overweight (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) high‐income towns: 1.09 (0.82‐1.26) low‐income towns: 1.09 (1.07‐1.11) 1.09 (1.07‐1.11) fixed |
||
| Oreskovic (2009) 95 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 21 008 | Number of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around home | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.98 (0.96‐1.01) |
||
| Park (2013) 97 | CS | Seoul, South Korea [C] | 939 | Number of FFRs within 0.5‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2007 Korean National Growth Charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.83 (0.72‐0.96) |
||
| Shier (2016) 104 | CS | USA [N] | 903 | Number of FFRs within 3.2‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) |
β (SE) 0.000 (0.002) OR (95% CI) 1.00 (0.9961‐1.0039) |
||
| Tang (2014) 107 | CS | New Jersey, USA [C4] | 12 954 | Number of FFRs within 0.4‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Overweight/obesity (BMI percentile ≥85th) |
β (95% CI) 0.0001 (−0.004 to 0.005) OR (95% CI) 1.0001 (0.9960‐1.0042) |
||
| Wasserman (2014) 111 | CS | Kansas, USA [C2] | 12 118 | Number of FFRs within 0.8‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Overweight (BMI ≥85th percentile) |
OR (95% CI) 1.02 (0.98‐1.08) |
||
| Number of FFRs and obesity (N = 8) | ||||||||
| Choo (2017) 20 | CS | Seoul, South Korea [C] | 126 | Number of Western FFRs within 0.2‐km straight‐line buffer around community child centre | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile or BMI >25 kg/m2) based on the 2012 guidelines of Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
OR (95% CI) 0.87 (0.608‐1.245) |
OR (95% CI) 1.02 (0.98‐1.07) random |
90% |
| Fraser (2010) 62 | CS | Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK [C] | 33 594 | Number of FFRs in residential super‐output area (SOA) | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) |
OR (95% CI) 1.01 (1.002‐1.02) |
||
| Leatherdale (2011) 87 | CS | Ontario, Canada [S] | 1207 | Number of FFRs within 1‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Obesity (BMI percentile ≥95th based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts) |
OR (95% CI) 0.96 (0.82‐1.13) |
||
| Mellor (2011) 91 | CS | Virginia, USA [S] | 2023 | Number of FFRs within 0.16‐/0.4‐/0.8‐/1.6‐km road‐network buffer around home | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.16‐km buffer zone: 3.07 (0.75‐12.59); 0.4‐km buffer zone: 1.04 (0.92‐1.19); 0.8‐km buffer zone: 0.97 (0.89‐1.06); 1.6‐km buffer zone: 0.98 (0.94‐1.03) 0.98 (0.95‐1.02) fixed |
||
| Oreskovic (2009) 94 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 6680 | Number of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around home | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) high‐income towns: 0.95 (0.72‐1.25); low‐income towns: 1.13 (1.10‐1.16) 1.13 (1.10‐1.16) fixed |
||
| Oreskovic (2009) 95 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 21 008 | Number of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around home | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.99 (0.96‐1.02) |
||
| Park (2013) 97 | CS | Seoul, South Korea [C] | 939 | Number of FFRs within 0.5‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2007 Korean National Growth Charts |
OR (95% CI) 1.15 (0.94‐1.39) |
||
| Wasserman (2014) 111 | CS | Kansas, USA [C2] | 12 118 | Number of FFRs within 0.8‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) |
OR (95% CI) 1.02 (0.97‐1.08) |
||
| Distance (km) to the nearest FFR and overweight/obesity (N = 6) | ||||||||
| Choo (2017) 20 | CS | Seoul, South Korea [C] | 126 | Road‐network distance (m) to the closest Western FFR around community child centre | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile or BMI >25 kg/m2) based on the 2012 guidelines of Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
OR (95% CI) 1.00 (0.984‐1.008) |
OR (95% CI) 0.98 (0.95‐1.01) random |
19% |
| Crawford (2008) 55 | CS | Melbourne, Australia [C] | 380 | Road‐network distance (km) to the nearest FFR from home | Overweight/obesity based on IOTF cut‐offs, equivalent to BMI ≥25 kg/m2 in adults |
OR (95% CI) 8‐ to 9‐year‐old boys: 0.99 (0.86‐1.15); 8‐ to 9‐year‐old girls: 1.02 (0.83‐1.25); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old boys: 1.08 (0.89‐1.30); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old girls: 1.18 (0.96‐1.45) 1.05 (0.96‐1.15) fixed |
||
| Larsen (2015) 83 | CS | Toronto, Canada [C] | 943 | Road‐network distance (km) to the nearest FFR from home | Overweight and obesity based on IOTF cut‐offs, equivalent to BMI ≥25 kg/m2 in adults |
OR (95% CI) 1.261 (0.871‐1.825) |
||
| Miller (2014) 92 | CS | Perth, Australia [C] | 1850 | Road‐network distance (m) to the nearest FFR from home | Overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 1.000 (1.000‐1.000) |
||
| Oreskovic (2009) 94 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 6680 | Road‐network distance (km) to the nearest FFR from home | Overweight (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) high‐income towns: 0.93 (0.86‐1.00); low‐income towns: 0.97 (0.92‐1.03) 0.96 (0.92‐1.00) fixed |
||
| Oreskovic (2009) 95 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 21 008 | Road‐network distance (km) to the nearest FFR from home | Overweight (BMI ≥85th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.98 (0.95‐1.00) |
||
| Distance (km) to the nearest FFR and obesity (N = 3) | ||||||||
| Choo (2017) 20 | CS | Seoul, South Korea [C] | 126 | Road‐network distance (m) to the closest Western FFR around community child centre | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile or BMI >25 kg/m2) based on the 2012 guidelines of Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
OR (95% CI) 1.00 (0.984‐1.008) |
OR (95% CI) 0.93 (0.84‐1.02) random |
65% |
| Oreskovic (2009) 94 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 6680 | Road‐network distance (km) to the nearest FFR from home | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) high‐income towns: 0.93 (0.82‐1.04); low‐income towns: 0.83 (0.75‐0.91) 0.87 (0.80‐0.94) fixed |
||
| Oreskovic (2009) 95 | CS | Massachusetts, USA [S] | 21 008 | Road‐network distance (km) to the nearest FFR from home | Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
OR (95% CI) 0.97 (0.94‐1.01) |
||
| Number of FFRs and BMI percentile (N = 2) | ||||||||
| An (2012) 44 | CS | California, USA [S] | 13 462 | Number of FFRs within 0.8‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Parent‐reported BMI percentile based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (SE) 5‐11 y: −0.0009 (0.0019); 12‐17 y: −0.0025 (0.0022) −0.0016 (0.0014) fixed |
β (95% CI) 0.0990 (‐0.2124, 0.4104) Random | 57% |
| Wasserman (2014) 111 | CS | Kansas, USA [C2] | 12 118 | Number of FFRs within 0.8‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Measured BMI percentile based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (SE) 0.35 (0.23) |
||
| Distance to nearest FFR and BMI z‐score (N = 2) | ||||||||
| Crawford (2008) 55 | CS | Melbourne, Australia [C] | 380 | Road‐network distance (km) to the nearest FFR from home | Measured BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (95% CI) 8‐ to 9‐year‐old boys: 0.05 (0.00‐0.10); 8‐ to 9‐year‐old girls: −0.04 (−0.13 to 0.05); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old boys: 0.04 (−0.06 to 0.13); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old girls: 0.03 (−0.03 to 0.09) 0.0304 (−0.0029 to 0.0637) fixed |
β (95% CI) 0.0316 (0.0098‐0.0534) fixed/random | 0 |
| Lamichhane (2012) 81 | CS | South Carolina, USA [S] | 845 | Road‐network distance (mile) to the nearest FFR from home | Measured BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (95% CI) 0.052 (0.007‐0.098) km: 0.0325 (0.0044‐0.0613) |
||
| Presence of FFRs and BMI z‐score (N = 6) | ||||||||
| Ghenadenik (2018) 30 | LO | Montreal, Canada [C] | 391 | Presence of FFRs in residential street segment | Measured BMI z‐score based on the 2010 US CDC growth charts |
β (SE) 0.105 (0.185) |
β (95% CI) 0.0276 (−0.0205 to 0.0757) random |
27% |
| Crawford (2008) 55 | CS | Melbourne, Australia [C] | 380 | Presence of FFRs within 2‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Measured BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (95% CI) 8‐ to 9‐year‐old boys: −0.02 (−0.23 to 0.25); 8‐ to 9‐year‐old girls: −0.01 (−1.11 to 1.09); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old boys: −0.49 (−0.95 to −0.03); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old girls: −0.35 (−0.69 to −0.02) −0.1573 (−0.3220 to 0.0073) fixed |
||
| Gilliland (2012) 64 | CS | London, UK [C] | 891 | Presence of FFRs within 0.5‐km road‐network buffer around home | Self‐reported BMI z‐score based on the WHO growth charts |
β (SE) 0.012 (0.121) |
||
| Tang (2014) 107 | CS | New Jersey, USA [C4] | 12 954 | Presence of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around school | BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (95% CI) 0.07 (−0.01 to 0.15) |
||
| Wall (2012) 110 | CS | Minneapolis/St Paul, USA [C] | 2682 | Presence of FFRs within 1.2‐km road‐network buffer around home | Measured BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (SE) boys: 0.095 (0.078); girls: 0.045 (0.060) 0.0636 (0.0476) fixed |
||
| Williams (2015) 112 | CS | Berkshire, UK [CT] | 16 956 | Presence of FFRs within 0.8‐km road‐network buffer around school | Measured BMI z‐score based on the IOTF reference curves |
β (95% CI) 0.02 (−0.02 to 0.06) |
||
| Number of FFRs and BMI z‐score (N = 8) | ||||||||
| Chen (2016) 27 | LO | Arkansas, USA [S] | 21 639 | Number of FFRs along the most direct street route from home to school within 50‐m buffer on either side of the street | Measured BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (95% CI) 0.0001 (−0.0004 to 0.0007) |
β (95% CI) 0.0006 (−0.0015 to 0.0027) random |
41% |
| Green (2018) 31 | LO | Leeds, UK [C] | 746 | Number of FFRs within 1‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Measured BMI SDS based on the UK 1990 growth charts |
β (95% CI) −0.017 (−0.035 to 0.002) |
||
| Baek (2014) 46 | CS | California, USA [S] | 926 018 | Number of FFRs within 0.4‐/0.8‐/1.2‐km straight‐line buffer around school | Measured BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (SE) 0.4‐km buffer zone: 1.14 × 10−3 (3.73 × 10−3); 0.8‐km buffer zone: 1.12 × 10−3 (1.97 × 10−3); 1.2‐km buffer zone: 1.72 × 10−3 (1.15 × 10−3) 0.0015 (0.0010) fixed |
||
| Crawford (2008) 55 | CS | Melbourne, Australia [C] | 380 | Number of FFRs within 2‐km straight‐line buffer around home | Measured BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (95% CI) 8‐ to 9‐year‐old boys: −0.01 (−0.05 to 0.04); 8‐ to 9‐year‐old girls: −0.02 (−0.15 to 0.11); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old boys: −0.07 (−0.14 to 0.01); 13‐ to 15‐year‐old girls: −0.03 (−0.08 to 0.02) −0.0262 (−0.0540 to 0.0017) fixed |
||
| Fraser (2010) 62 | CS | Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK [C] | 33 594 | Number of FFRs in residential super‐output area (SOA) | Measured BMI SDS based on the UK1990 BMI reference |
β (95% CI) 0.004 (−0.007 to 0.01) |
||
| Lamichhane (2012) 81 | CS | South Carolina, USA [S] | 845 | Number of FFRs within 1.6‐km road‐network buffer around home | Measured BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (95% CI) 0.002 (−0.027 to 0.031) |
||
| Shier (2016) 104 | CS | USA [N] | 903 | Number of FFRs within 3.2‐km straight‐line buffer around home | BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (SE) −0.001 (0.004) |
||
| Tang (2014) 107 | CS | New Jersey, USA [C4] | 12 954 | Number of FFRs within 0.4‐km straight‐line buffer around school | BMI z‐score based on the 2000 US CDC growth charts |
β (95% CI) 0.01 (−0.002 to 0.02) |
||
| Presence of FFRs and BMI (N = 3) | ||||||||
| Davis (2009) 57 | CS | California, USA [S] | 529 367 | Presence of FFRs within 0.8 km from school | BMI |
β (95% CI) 0.10 (0.03‐0.16) |
β (95% CI) 0.2888 (−0.0942 to 0.6719) random |
52% |
| Li (2011) 88 | CS | Xi'an, China [C] | 1792 | Presence of FFRs within 10‐min walk around school reported by school doctors | Measured BMI |
β (95% CI) 0.7 (0.1‐1.2) |
||
| Mellor (2011) 91 | CS | Virginia, USA [S] | 2023 | Presence of FFRs within 0.8‐km road‐network buffer around home | Measured BMI |
β (95% CI) 0.35 (−0.42 to 1.13) |
||
| Presence of FFRs and BMI (N = 2) | ||||||||
| Davis (2009) 57 | CS | California, USA [S] | 529 367 | Presence of FFRs within 0.4 km from school | BMI |
β (95% CI) 0.12 (0.04‐0.20) |
β (95% CI) 0.2420 (−0.2555 to 0.7395) random |
37% |
| Mellor (2011) 91 | CS | Virginia, USA [S] | 2023 | Presence of FFRs within 0.4‐km road‐network buffer around home | Measured BMI |
β (95% CI) 0.77 (−0.24 to 1.78) |
||
| Density of FFRs and BMI (N = 2) | ||||||||
| Powell (2009) 37 | LO | USA [N] | 5215 | Density of FFRs per 10 000 capita | Self‐reported BMI |
β (SE) 0.1215 (0.1164) |
β (95% CI) −0.0275 (−0.3132 to 0.2582) random |
70% |
| Powell (2009) 98 | CS | USA [N] | 6594 | Density of FFRs per 10 000 capita | Mother‐reported BMI |
β (SE) −0.1701 (0.1081) |
||
| Number of FFRs and BMI (N = 2) | ||||||||
| Davis (2009) 57 | CS | California, USA [S] | 529 367 | Number of FFRs within 0.8‐km road‐network buffer around school | BMI |
β (95% CI) 0.00 (0.00‐0.00) |
β (95% CI) 0.004 (−0.15 to 0.16) |
NA |
| Mellor (2011) 91 | CS | Virginia, USA [S] | 2023 | Number of FFRs within 0.8‐km road‐network buffer around home | Measured BMI |
β (95% CI) 0.004 (−0.15 to 0.16) |
||
| Presence of FFRs and school overweight rates (N = 2) | ||||||||
| Howard (2011) 72 | CS | California, USA [S] | 879 public schools | Presence of FFRs within 0.8‐km road‐network buffer around school | School overweight rates based on criterion‐referenced gender‐, age‐, and test‐specific cut‐offs established by a national advisory panel |
β (95% CI) −0.04 (−1.18 to 1.10) |
β (95% CI) 0.1767 (−0.5830 to 0.9365) fixed/random |
0 |
| Langellier (2012) 82 | CS | Los Angeles, USA [CT] | 1694 schools | Presence of FFRs within 0.8‐km road‐network buffer around school | School overweight rates based on the sex‐ and age‐specific cut‐offs defined by the Physical Fitness Testing programme in 2009 |
β (SE) 0.35 (0.52) |
||
Study design: LO, longitudinal; CS, cross‐sectional;
Study area: [N], national; [S], state (eg, in the United States) or equivalent unit (eg, province in China and Canada); [Sn], n states or equivalent units; [CT], county or equivalent unit; [CTn], n counties or equivalent units; [C], city; [Cn], n cities.