Table 5. Study description.
| Author | Sample Size | Confounders | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Egulend et al, (2009) | OHC (1,072); In-home care (1,457); Non- Child Protection Contacts (71,321) |
All Children, Children in out-of-home care, In-home care children, non-welfare children, number of siblings, Danish born children, Mother’s age, teenage mothers, single mothers, mother’s education, mother’s employment status, mother/ father died, mother/ father with a psychiatric illness, mother/ father substance abuse problem, mother/ father previously convicted, mother/ father in care as children | Clinical diagnosis of psychiatric illnesses |
| Hansson et al. (2018) | Non-OHC (40,107); OHC (1,482) |
Gender, migration, parents’ education, OHC vs Non-OHC, relocations | 1. Cognitive Ability Test Level; 2. Special Needs Education |
| Kisely et al. (2019) | Smoking status (3,758); Nicotine use dependence (2,548); Propensity Analysis (7,223) |
Gender of the child, parental race, maternal age, mother’s relationship status, family income at study entry (first prenatal visit), maternal smoking, and maternal education at study entry, childhood maltreatment | 1. Cigarette smoking; 2. Any cigarette use; 3. Long-term cigarette use; 4: CIDI-Auto (12-month Nicotine use disorder) |
| Kisely et al. (2018) | 1. YASR(3,725); 2. CIDI-Auto (2,508); 3. CES-D (3,778) |
Gender of the child; parental ethnicity; maternal age; mother’s relationship status; family income at the time of study entry (first prenatal visit) and maternal education status at study entry, overall child maltreatment, emotional, physical, sexual abuse, neglect. | 1. YASR (Internalising & Externalising); 2. CIDI, DSM-IV (Depression, Anxiety, PTSD) 3. CES-D |
| Kisely et al. (2019) | 1. Alcohol use in the last month (3,762); 2. Alcohol use disorder (2,531) |
First prenatal visit (Race, maternal age, mother’s education, marital status and family income) and at 21-year follow up (employment, marital status, educational level and residence in a problem area), childhood maltreatment | 1. Alcohol use in the last month; 2. CIDI DSM-IV Alcohol use disorder |
| Olsen et al. (2018) | 1. OHC (107); 2. Non-OHC (3,805) |
Gender, birth weight, ethnicity, citizenship, psychiatric diagnosis, bullying, family type, mother’s educational level, father’s educational level, mother’s disposable income, father’s disposable income. | 1. Self perceived academic ability at age 15 years; 2. School change in lower secondary school |
| Parrish et al. (2016) | Total (2,389) | Self-reported IPV, race, maternal education, maternal smoking, maternal alcohol use, poverty, parents marital status, prenatal care, maternal age | Maltreatment report to Child Protective Services |
| Parrish et al. (2017) | Total (1,235) | Birth paid by Tricare (military families), sex of the child, maternal education at child’s birth, marital status at birth, maternal alcohol use during pregnancy, maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal race, birth defect, mother or child on Medicaid at birth, fathers name listed on birth certificate, maternal age at birth, multi-agency maltreatment report, mother reported being divorced/separated 12 months before pregnancy, mother reported moving 12 months before pregnancy, mother reported losing a job 12 months before pregnancy, mother reported partner/husband losing a job 12 months before pregnancy | Censorship; Multi-source report of maltreatment |
| Raghavan et al. (2017) | LTFC (1,569); CPS (8,917) |
Age, gender, race/ethnicity, Insurance type, primary care case management, urban/rural location, health condition, health care access | Ascertainment of foster care status |
| Sidebotham et al. (2000) | 1.Registered children (139); 2. Children investigated but not registered (190); 3. Children neither investigated nor registered (13, 927) |
1. Time period (8, 18, 21, 30 33 months); 2. Registered children; children investigated but not registered; children neither investigated nor registered |
1. Rates of child protection registrations; 2. Proportion of child abuse investigations and registrations; 3. Parental reporting of child abuse |
| Sidebotham et al. (2003) | 1. Registered children (115) 2. Non-registered children (14,105) |
Low birthweight, unintended pregnancy, hospital admissions, developmental concerns, reported positive attributes, feeding difficulties, temper tantrums, parental concerns about the child’s development, and not seeing the child in a positive light. | Child protection registration prior to 6 years of age |
| Sidebotham et al. (2006) | Registered children (115); Investigated children (178); Neither registered nor investigated (13, 963) |
Parental ontogenic background (Young parent, low educational achievement, psychiatric history, history of childhood abuse (any); Exosystem (socio-demographic) variables (Any indicator of poverty, Mother employed, Poor social network. Microsystem (family) variables (high parity, single mother, reported domestic violence, reordered family); Child variables (Unintended pregnancy, Low birthweight, Few positive attributes reported | 1. Children registered for maltreatment; 2. Children investigated for maltreatment |
| Sidebotham et al. (2002) | Registered children (85); Non-registered children (13, 089) |
Maternal employment, mobility (house moves), social network score. | 1. Child Abuse registrations 2. Child maltreatment |
| Teyhan et al. (2019) | No CLA or CIN (9,432); CIN(64); CLA (49) |
Social care status, Age, sex, socio-economic position, maternal age, highest educational qualification; financial difficulties; housing tenure; partner status; smoking; alcohol intake; social support; and depressive symptoms | 1. Educational attainment; 2. Persistent absence from school; 3. Special educational needs (SEN) status; 4. School Mobility |
| Austin et al. (2019) | AN(1,253); NN (2,094) |
Maternal age and education at childbirth, preconception and prenatal substance use, and experiences of emotional, traumatic, partner, and financial stress in the 12 months prior to childbirth | Longitudinal trajectory classes of CPS contact |
| Austin et al. (2019) | Total (3,549) | Maternal race, maternal age, maternal education, maternal marital status, residence at childbirth, number of living children, maternal history of pregnancy terminations, pregnancy intendedness, timing of prenatal care, number of stressful live events, maternal experience of intimate partner violence (IPV), maternal alcohol use, maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal marijuana use, socioeconomic status, infant sex, infant birth defects | Age at first CP contact |
| Hansson et al. (2020) | OHC (1,099); Non OHC(30, 936) |
Gender, migration, parents’ education, school relocations, Cognsum | Academic achievement |
| Abajobir et al. (2017) | Total (3,752) | Youth gender, ADHD at 5 year, alcohol use, smoking, aggressive behaviour (at 14 years), receiving benefits, educational levels, marital status, residential problem area at 21 years, familial income over the first 5 years, chronic stress over first 6 months, and maternal reports of violence in homes at 14 years, any abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, neglect | 1. Auditory hallucinations 2. Visual hallucinations 3. Peter’s Delusional Inventory (PDI) 4. DSM-IV Psychosis |
| Abajobir et al. (2017) | Total (3,730) | Child maltreatment, maternal age at first clinic visit, family income at first clinic visit, gender at birth, educational status, receipt of social security benefits and depressive symptoms at 21-year follow-up | Quality of Life Index Score |
| Abajobir et al. (2017) | Total (3,322) | Substantiated child maltreatment, sex at birth, receipt of social security benefits, educational level, marital status and residential problem area at 21-year, aggressive child behaviour, maternal poverty level, maternal marital stability, maternal stress, maternal negative life events, family violence | Intimate partner violence victimization |
| Abajobir et al. (2017) | Total (2,526) | Any maltreatment, sexual abuse, physical abuse, neglect, emotional abuse, age at substantiation, frequency of substantiation, maternal age at pregnancy, maternal prenatal and postnatal cigarette smoking, family poverty, educational level, marital status, gender at birth | Cannabis abuse, dependence, early age of onset of cannabis abuse and dependence |
| Abajobir et al. (2017) | Total (3,750) | Any maltreatment, sexual abuse, physical abuse, neglect, emotional abuse, receiving social security benefits, educational level, marital status at 21 years and paternal or maternal race at pregnancy, maternal alcohol use at 3–6 months and chronic depressive symptoms | Injecting drug use |
| Strathean et al. (2009) | Total (5,890) | Maternal prenatal demographic factors (age, marital status, education, race, employment); prenatal behaviours/attitudes (cigarette consumption and binge drinking during pregnancy, anxiety and pregnancy ambivalence); infant factors (birth weight and gender), and 6 month postpartum maternal behaviours and attitudes (mother-infant separation, employment, maternal stimulation/teaching of baby, maternal attitude of caregiving and postpartum depression). Models: 1. Breastfeeding duration, 2. Single vs. multiple episodes of maltreatment, 3. Exclude previously enrolled children, 4. Only children in Queensland at 14 years of age | Substantiated maternal child maltreatment |
| Mills et al. (2013) | Total (5,098) | Notified and substantiated maltreatment, type of maltreatment (exclusive; hierarchical scheme), gender, race, During pregnancy (maternal age, marital status, maternal education) family income prior to birth | Internalizing and externalizing scales of the Youth Self Report (YSR) |
| Mills et al. (2016) | Major depressive disorder (2, 304); Anxiety disorder (2,298); PTSD(2,292) |
Self-reported CSA, Agency-notified CSA, Agency-substantiated CSA, gender, parental race, maternal age, maternal relationship status, family income, and maternal education | Major depressive disorder; Anxiety disorder; PTSD |
| Mills et al. (2014) | Any alcohol use (5,153); Any smoking (5,154) |
Maltreatment notification, type of maltreatment, Family income, maternal alcohol use and maternal smoking (14y follow-up); maternal education and marital status (prenatal); and race, age, and gender. | Alcohol use; smoking |
| Mills et al. (2019) | 1. Peabody Vocabulary Test (2,150); 2. Failure to complete high school (3,750); 3. Failure to be employed or in education (3,739) |
Notified maltreatment, substantiated maltreatment, age, sex, race, family income, maternal education, birthweight z score, neonatal intensive care admission, maternal tobacco and alcohol use in pregnancy, breast feeding | 1. Peabody picture vocabulary test 2. Failure to complete high school 3. Failure to be employed or education at 21 years |
| Mills et al. (2017) | Total (3,778) | Age, gender, race, family income, and maternal age, education, marital status, alcohol use, smoking, anxiety and depression, maltreatment type, additional adjustment for youth smoking and alcohol use at 14-year follow-up, youth internalizing and externalizing scale | Cannabis use/ dependence |
| Parrish et al. (2011) | Total Population (28,592); PSR (3,271) |
Maternal age and education, DVSA (maternal physical abuse and forced sexual activities), Maternal tobacco use, Maternal marital status, Substance abuse, living children, medically vulnerable, public aid, risk group category | PSR to child protective services |
| Raghavan et al. (2012) | Total (5,652) | Child age, gender, race/ ethnicity, rural/urban location, insurance type, placement status, health status, CBCL score, maltreatment type | 1. Annual probability of having any medication expenditures 2. Expenditures per child per year |
Notes
AN Alaska Native
CI Confidence Interval
CIDI Composite International Diagnostic Interview
CES-D Centre for Epidemiological Studies–Depression Scale
CLA Children Looked After
CIN Children In Need
CP Child Protection
CPS Child Protective Services
DSM-IV Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition
DVSA Domestic violence and sexual assault
IPV Intimate Partner Violence
LTFC Long Term Foster Care
N/A Not Applicable
NR Not Reported
NN Non-Native
OHC Out-of-home care
PPVT Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
PSR Protective Services Report
PTSD Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
SDQ Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire
YASR Young Adult Self Report