Table 2.
Summary of Spanking Meta-Analyses by Outcome
| Detrimental child outcome | K | Spank n | No Spank n | d | 95% CI | Z | I2 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Immediate defiance | 5 | 120 | 30 | .14 | −.19 | .47 | .85 | .80% |
| Low moral internalization | 8 | 745 | 84 | .38 | .11 | .65 | 2.76*** | 67.40% |
| Child aggression | 7 | 4,534 | 1,069 | .37 | .13 | .61 | 3.07*** | 91.40% |
| Child antisocial behavior | 9 | 5,725 | 1,086 | .39 | .24 | .53 | 5.28*** | 84.50% |
| Child externalizing behavior problems | 14 | 25,988 | 1,086 | .41 | .32 | .50 | 9.19*** | 88.40% |
| Child internalizing behavior problems | 8 | 12,413 | 3,486 | .24 | .13 | .35 | 4.36*** | 88.50% |
| Child mental health problems | 10 | 5,122 | 1,313 | .53 | .42 | .64 | 5.17*** | 76.00% |
| Child alcohol or substance abuse | 3 | 6,621 | 90,359 | .09 | −.11 | .29 | .90 | 91.30% |
| Negative parent–child relationship | 5 | 755 | 0 | .51 | .36 | .66 | 6.76*** | .00% |
| Impaired cognitive ability | 8 | 8,358 | 11 | .17 | .01 | .32 | 2.13* | 84.30% |
| Low self-esteem | 3 | 766 | 990 | .15 | .04 | .26 | 2.76** | .00% |
| Low self-regulation | 3 | 2,525 | 0 | .30 | −.07 | .67 | 1.58 | 94.30% |
| Victim of physical abuse | 8 | 3,334 | 996 | .64 | .39 | 1.74 | 4.07*** | 93.30% |
| Adult antisocial behavior | 3 | 985 | 4,206 | .36 | .06 | .65 | 2.35** | 92.00% |
| Adult mental health problems | 8 | 1,855 | 4,707 | .24 | .09 | .40 | 3.05** | 73.20% |
| Adult alcohol or substance abuse | 4 | 2,596 | 4,796 | .13 | −.08 | .35 | 1.21 | 91.90% |
| Adult support for physical punishment | 5 | 1,016 | 177 | .38 | .15 | .61 | 3.28*** | 55.50% |
| Overall effect size | 111 | 89,638 | 114,722 | .33 | .29 | .38 | 14.84*** | 88.80% |
Note. K = number of effect sizes in the meta-analysis; d = mean weighted effect size; Z = significance test that d differs from zero; I2 = the variation in the mean effect size attributable to heterogeneity. Bolded effect sizes are significantly different from zero.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.