Table 2. Univariable and multivariable analyses of factors associated with symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress (N = 1163).
| Depression | Anxiety | Stress | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Socio demographic characteristics | Overall N(%) | Moderate/ Severe/ Extremely severe (n = 344) | p-value | Adjusted OR (95%CI)a | Moderate/ Severe/ Extremely severe (n = 461) | p-value | Adjusted OR (95%CI)b | Moderate/ Severe/ Extremely severe (n = 202) | p-value | Adjusted OR (95%CI)c |
| Age group (years) | ||||||||||
| 18–25 | 322 (27.7) | 156 (48.4) | 2.03 (1.06–3.91)* | 182 (56.5) | 1.35 (0.76–2.39) | 96 (29.8) | 2.73 (1.19–6.23)* | |||
| 26–45 | 592 (50.9) | 155 (26.2) | p<0.001 | 2.07 (1.30–3.30)** | 219 (37.0) | p<0.001 | 1.43 (0.99–2.08) | 93 (15.7) | p<0.001 | 3.23 (1.72–6.31)*** |
| > 45 | 249 (21.4) | 33 (13.3) | Ref | 60 (24.1) | Ref | 13 (5.2) | Ref | |||
| Gender | ||||||||||
| Male | 217 (18.7) | 56 (25.8) | 0.188 | 73 (33.6) | 0.046 | Ref | 27 (12.4) | 0.037 | Ref | |
| Female | 946 (81.3) | 288 (30.4) | 388 (41.0) | 1.49 (1.06–2.10)* | 175 (18.5) | 1.83 (1.14–2.95)* | ||||
| Ethnicity | ||||||||||
| Malay | 882 (75.8) | 254 (28.8) | 362 (41.0) | 1.09 (0.64–1.86) | 154 (17.5) | |||||
| Chinese | 100 (8.6) | 34 (34.0) | 0.320 | 39 (39.0) | 0.039 | 0.69 (0.35–1.36) | 22 (22.0) | 0.202 | ||
| Indian | 108 (9.3) | 29 (26.9) | 29 (26.9) | 0.50 (0.25–0.99)* | 12 (11.1) | |||||
| Bumiputera Sabah/ Sarawak/ Others | 73 (6.3) | 27 (37.0) | 31 (42.5) | Ref | 14 (19.2) | |||||
| Marital Status | ||||||||||
| Never married | 490 (42.1) | 223 (45.5) | p<0.001 | 1.71 (0.92–3.16) | 262 (53.5) | p<0.001 | 1.40 (0.82–2.40) | 136 (27.8) | p<0.001 | 2.05 (0.94–4.46) |
| Ever married | 673 (57.9) | 121 (18.0) | Ref | 199 (29.6) | Ref | 66 (9.8) | Ref | |||
| Have child/ children | ||||||||||
| Yes | 595 (51.2) | 104 (17.5) | p<0.001 | Ref | 172 (28.9) | p<0.001 | Ref | 58 (9.7) | p<0.001 | Ref |
| No | 568 (48.8) | 240 (42.3) | 1.17 (0.65–2.09) | 289 (50.9) | 1.17 (0.71–1.92) | 144 (25.4) | 0.93 (0.44–1.96) | |||
| Highest educational level | ||||||||||
| Secondary and below | 78 (6.7) | 12 (15.4) | 0.004 | Ref | 18 (23.1) | 0.002 | Ref | 6 (7.7) | 0.019 | Ref |
| Tertiary | 1085 (93.3) | 332 (30.6) | 1.82 (0.89–3.71) | 443 (40.8) | 1.80 (0.99–3.250 | 196 (18.1) | 1.85 (0.72–4.71) | |||
| Occupation type | ||||||||||
| Professional and managerial | 589 (50.6) | 116 (19.7) | Ref | 187 (31.7) | Ref | 66 (11.2) | Ref | |||
| General worker | 84 (7.2) | 16 (19.0) | p<0.001 | 0.85 (0.45–1.62) | 21 (25.0) | p<0.001 | 0.71 (0.41–1.23) | 4 (4.8) | p<0.001 | 0.39 (0.13–1.14) |
| Housewife/ Retired/ Other | 150 (12.9) | 38 (25.3) | 1.20 (0.73–1.96) | 51 (34.0) | 1.04 (0.68–1.60) | 21 (14.0) | 1.39 (0.77–2.52) | |||
| Student | 340 (29.2) | 174 (51.2) | 1.79 (1.12–2.86)* | 202 (59.4) | 1.84 (1.19–2.85)** | 111 (32.6) | 2.03 (1.18–3.56)* | |||
| Monthly average household income (MYR) | ||||||||||
| 4000 and below | 522 (44.9) | 199 (38.1) | 0.90 (0.59–1.39) | 244 (46.7) | 1.03 (0.70–1.52) | 113 (21.6) | 0.49 (0.30–0.80)** | |||
| 4001–8000 | 370 (31.8) | 76 (20.5) | p<0.001 | 0.81 (0.53–1.24) | 120 (32.4) | p<0.001 | 0.92 (0.64–1.32) | 36 (9.7) | p<0.001 | 0.43 (0.26–0.71)** |
| >8000 | 271 (23.3) | 69 (25.5) | Ref | 97 (35.8) | Ref | 53 (19.6) | Ref | |||
| Perceived current financial status | ||||||||||
| Poor | 125 (10.7) | 71 (56.8) | 2.63 (1.51–4.59)** | 67 (53.6) | 1.28 (0.76–2.14) | 40 (32.0) | 1.93 (1.03–3.61)* | |||
| Medium | 732 (62.9) | 211 (28.8) | p<0.001 | 1.36 (0.93–1.98) | 296 (40.4) | p<0.001 | 1.27 (0.92–1.76) | 124 (16.9) | p<0.001 | 1.46 (0.93–2.29) |
| Good | 306 (26.3) | 62 (20.3) | Ref | 98 (32.0) | Ref | 38 (12.4) | Ref | |||
| Locality | ||||||||||
| Urban | 723 (62.2) | 212 (29.3) | 268 (37.1) | 126 (17.4) | ||||||
| Sub-urban | 304 (26.1) | 91 (29.9) | 0.969 | 137 (45.1) | 0.053 | 54 (17.8) | 0.919 | |||
| Rural | 136 (11.7) | 41 (30.1) | 56 (41.2) | 22 (16.2) | ||||||
| Region | ||||||||||
| Northern | 157 (13.5) | 56 (35.7) | 0.70 (0.36–1.33) | 61 (38.9) | 33 (21.0) | |||||
| Southern | 80 (6.9) | 23 (28.8) | 0.95 (0.62–1.45) | 34 (42.5) | 11 (13.8) | |||||
| Central | 697 (59.9) | 214 (30.7) | 0.042 | 0.66 (0.38–1.14) | 278 (39.9) | 0.877 | 127 (18.2) | 0.212 | ||
| East Coast | 186 (16.0) | 39 (21.0) | 1.12 (0.49–2.55) | 69 (37.1) | 23 (12.4) | |||||
| Borneo Island | 43 (3.7) | 12 (27.9) | Ref | 19 (44.2) | 8 (18.6) | |||||
| Health status | ||||||||||
| Diagnosed with any chronic diseases | ||||||||||
| Yes | 99 (8.5) | 35 (35.4) | 0.205 | 45 (45.5) | 0.238 | 21 (21.2) | 0.331 | |||
| No | 1064 (91.5) | 309 (29.0) | 416 (39.1) | 181 (17.0) | ||||||
| Perceived health status | ||||||||||
| Very good/ Good | 999 (85.9) | 233 (23.3) | p<0.001 | Ref | 351 (35.1) | p<0.001 | Ref | 133 (13.3) | p<0.001 | Ref |
| Fair/ Poor/ Very poor | 164 (14.1) | 111 (67.7) | 5.68 (3.81–8.47)*** | 110 (67.1) | 3.50 (2.37–5.17)*** | 69 (42.1) | 3.66 (2.46–5.45)*** | |||
| COVID-19 experience | ||||||||||
| Ever known anyone infected or died of COVID-19 | ||||||||||
| Yes | 272 (23.4) | 70 (25.7) | 0.129 | 114 (41.9) | 0.396 | 38 (14.0) | 0.100 | |||
| No | 891 (76.6) | 274 (30.8) | 347 (38.9) | 164 (18.4) |
*,p<0.05
**p<0.01
***p<0.001
aHosmer–Lemeshow test, chi-square: 8.048, p-value: 0.429; Nagelkerke R2: 0.280
bHosmer–Lemeshow test, chi-square: 9.609, p-value: 0.294; Nagelkerke R2: 0.180
cHosmer–Lemeshow test, chi-square: 6.584, p-value: 0.582; Nagelkerke R2: 0.229