Table 4.

Effect of bee products on reproductive performance of females of different mammalian species.

Animal Species	Treatment/Honeybee Product	Result	Suggested Mode of Action
Ovariectomized rats a model for menopausal symptoms in women [76]	0.2, 1.0, and 2.0 g/kg/day of Tualang honey for 2 weeks	At all levels, increased uterus weight and vaginal epithelium thickness, restored the morphology of the tibia bones, and decreased P4 and E2 levels	Estrogenic activity of flavonoids (kaempferol and quercetin) Antioxidant activity
Rabbits and offspring [82]	150 and 300 mg/kg diet/day of bee pollen and/or propolis (Bp + Pro) three times a week along eight parities	At 150 or 300 mg of Bp + Pro alone or together, improved reproductive performance, milk production, litter size viability and weights, and immune status of does	Antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant properties. Improving gastrointestinal microflora homeostasis High nutritional value (polyunsaturated fatty acids, mineral, vitamins, and amino acids)
Rabbits [83]	0.2 g/kg BW of bee pollen and/or propolis compared with 35 mg/kg BW prebiotic (inulin and/or MOS)	MOS and bee pollen with or without propolis treatments increased P4 and E2 levels and fertility Bp with propolis increased litter size and number of live kits at birth	Antioxidant activity of flavonoids and carotenoids Improving nutritional status Presence of natural growth promoters Improving lipid metabolism owing to the action of linolenic fatty acid in bee pollen Improving sex steroidogenesis
Rats [84]	3 and 5 g/kg feed mixture of rape seed bee pollen	At 5 k/kg, decreased IGF-I release by rat ovarian fragments, and increased P4 and E2 secretion	Regulating ovarian steroidogenesis Regulating antiapoptotic and pro-proliferating pathways
Rabbits and offspring [85]	100, 200, and 300 mg/kg BW of bee pollen extract for 1 week before and after mating	At 200 mg/kg BW, increased E2, conception rate, litter size and survival at birth, and milk yield and body weight of kits	Improving nutritional status Antioxidant activity of flavonoids, carotenoids, and phenolic constituents Improving lipid metabolism
Polycystic ovarian syndrome animal model using female rats [46]	200 and 400 mg/kg/day of royal jelly for 4 weeks	Increased FSH and TAC levels and decreased LH, E2, T and MDA levels, and the size of cystic follicles	Antioxidant properties of caffeic acid and anti-inflammatory properties of sebacic acid Anti-androgenic effect Modulating estrogenic activity by 10-HDA and HDAA
Sheep [80]	250 mg/ewe of royal jelly during 12 days of estrous synchronization	Induced estrus and increased first service conception rate	Gonadotropin hormones-like action
Sheep [77]	400 mg/ewe of royal jelly during the period of CIDR-treatment	Improved pregnancy and lambing rates	Gonadotropin hormones-like action
Rats [81]	Intraperitoneal treatment with 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg BW/day royal jelly for 14 days	At all levels, increased uterine and ovarian weights and the serum levels of P4 and E2, and number of mature follicles and corpora lutea	Royalactinn, a 57 kDa protein, acts as a growth promoter Amino acid roles in tissue synthesis and body growth Steriodogenesis stimulating effects, particularly progesterone Antioxidant activity

W: body weight, Bp: bee pollen, CIDR: progesterone (P₄)-releasing devices, eCG: equine chorionic gonadotropin, E₂: estradiol, FSH: follicle stimulating hormone g: gram, HDAA: hydroxy-decenoic acid, 10-HAD: 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid, kDa: kilo Dalton, kg: kilogram, LH: luteinizing hormone, MDA: malondialdehyde, MOS: mannan-oligosaccharides, mg: milligram, ml: milli, P₄: progesterone, Pro: propolis, T: testosterone, TAC: total antioxidant capacity.