Table 3.

Direct effects of NDOs on enterotoxin-producing bacteria.

Bacteria	Toxins	NDOs	Mechanism of Action	Ref.
Escherichia coli	Stx, LTs, STs	Pooled HMOs, 3′SL, 6′SL, DSLNT, 6SLN, 3′S3FL, LST a	Inhibition of hemagglutination	[114]
		Fucosylated HMOs	Anti-adhesive effect	[115]
		Pooled HMOs, 3-FL, 3′SL, 6′SL, acidic and neutral (HMW and LMW) HMOs	Anti-adhesive effect	[116]
		2′FL, 3-FL	Anti-adhesive effect	[117]
		2′FL, 6′SL	Anti-adhesive effect	[118]
		Pooled HMOs	Reduced enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) attachment to epithelial cells	[119]
		AOS	Inhibition of biofilm formation	[120]
		COS	Antimicrobial effect	[121]
			Anti-adhesive effect	[122]
			Antibacterial effect	[123,124]
			(growth inhibition)
			Antioxidant and antimicrobial effect	[125]
			Membrane disruption (growth inhibition)	[126]
		GOS	Anti-adhesive effect	[127]
		MOS	Anti-adhesive effect	[128,129]
		POS	Growth inhibition	[130]
			Anti-adhesive effect	[131]
			Antimicrobial effect	[132,133]
Vibrio cholerae	CT	Pooled HMOs	Anti-adhesive effect (neutral, HMW)	[116]
		Isolated HMOs	No anti-adhesive effect (LMW)	[116]
		COS, NAc-COS	Bactericidal effect	[134]
Bacillus cereus	Hbl, Nhe, CytK	COS	Antibacterial effect	[134,135]
			(growth inhibition)
			Membrane disruption (growth inhibition)	[126]
Staphylococcus aureus	SEs	Pooled HMOs	Inhibition of biofilm formation	[105]
		COS	Antibacterial effect	[123,134,136]
			(growth inhibition)
			Antioxidant and antimicrobial effect	[125]
		POS	Growth inhibition	[130]
			Antimicrobial effect	[132]
			Anti-adhesive effect	[137]
		XOS	Antibacterial effect	[138]
Clostridium spp.	TcdA, TcdB, CDT, CPE, CPB	FOS	Anti-adhesive effect Inhibition of biofilm formation	[139]