Table 4.
Effects of NDOs and short chain fatty acids (SCFA) against bacterial enterotoxins.
| Enterotoxins | NDOs/SCFA | Mechanism of Action | Health Benefit | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cholera toxin | COS | Activation of AMPK | Reduction in CT-induced intestinal fluid secretion | [171] |
| Cholera toxin | SOS | Mimicking GM1 receptor | Anti-adhesive effect | [172] |
| Cholera toxin | Pooled HMOs | GM1 mimicking | Inhibition of sialyllactose on fluid accumulation induced by CT | [173] |
| Cholera toxin | GOS | Mimicking GM1 receptor | Anti-adhesive effect | [174] |
| Cholera toxin | 2′-FL | 2′-FL resembles fucosylated glycan epitopes | Inhibition of CTB binding | [176] |
| Cholera Toxin | 2′FL, LNnT, LNFP I, II, III |
Binding with CTB | No inhibitory effect | [177] |
| Cholera toxin | Acetate, propionate, butyrate | Reduction in water and electrolyte secretion | Anti-diarrheal effects | [182] |
| Shiga toxins | 2′FL, LNnT, LNFP I, II, III | Binding with STX | No inhibitory effect | [177] |
| Shiga toxins | POS | POS mimic the interaction with the galabiose receptor | Inhibition of Stx | [195] |
| Shiga toxins | POS | Reduction in rRNA depurination | Reduction in Stx cytotoxicity | [140] |
| Shiga toxins | Acetic acid, Lactic acid | Decrease in pH | Reduction in stx2 gene expression | [169,197] |
| Shiga Toxins | Acetate | Reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance | Prevention of Stx translocation | [198,199] |
| Heat-stable enterotoxin (ST) | Fucosylated HMOs | not determined | Protective effect (suckling mice) | [191] |
| Heat-stable enterotoxin (ST) | Pooled HMOs, Fucosylated HMOs | Block of human guanylate cyclase activation by allosteric binding to the STa receptor | Protective effect (T84 cells) | [192] |
| Heat-labile enterotoxin (LT) | FOS | Bifidogenic effect with L. rhamnosus | Reduction in growth and toxin production | [193] |
| Heat-labile enterotoxin type 1 (LT-1) | 2′FL, LNnT, LNFP I, II, III | Binding with LTB | No inhibitory effect | [177] |
| Heat-labile enterotoxin (LT) | Acetic, propionic, butyric, valeric, caproic and heptylic acids | Effects on the biosynthesis of LT | Reduction in LT production | [194] |
| C. difficile toxin B (TcdB) | FOS, inulin | Inhibiting toxin-related gene expression | Anti-inflammatory effect | [186] |
| C. difficile toxins A (TcdA) and B (TcdB) | Pooled HMOs | Mimicking the structure of cellular receptors | Inhibition of toxins’ binding to cellular receptors | [185] |
| C. difficile toxins A (TcdA) and B (TcdB) | Acetate, propionate, butyrate | Decrease in pH | Prevention of growth and elaboration of toxin (colonization resistance) | [187] |
| C. difficile toxins A (TcdA) and B (TcdB) | Butyrate | Stabilization of HIF-1 | Anti-inflammatory effects and intestinal barrier function improvement | [164] |
| C. perfringens enterotoxin | Acetate, isobutyrate, isovalerate, succinate | Inhibition of toxin sporulation | Reduction in enterotoxin cytotoxicity | [190] |