Table 3.
Maternal metabolic parameters and pregnancy outcomes by dietary intervention group (n = 62).
| Low-GL Group | Higher-GL Group | Mean between-Group Difference (95% CI) 1 | p | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | Mean (SD)/Median (25th, 75h Percentile) | n | Mean (SD)/Median (25th, 75h Percentile) | |||
| Maternal metabolic parameters | ||||||
| Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | ||||||
| gw 20 | 27 | 79.4 (5.50) | 33 | 81.1 (5.50) | 1.67 (−4.53; 1.19) | 0.2 |
| gw 28 | 25 | 81.1 (7.89) | 34 | 82.7 (6.66) | −1.66 (−5.46; 2.14) | 0.4 |
| gw 34 | 25 | 81.2 (7.29) | 34 | 82.5 (8.15) | −1.31 (−5.42; 2.81) | 0.5 |
| mean change | 25 | 1.90 (−2.10; 5.80) | 33 | 1.2 (−4.0; 3.8) | 0.44 (−3.37; 4.24) | 0.5 |
| Glucose 3h-iAUC (mg/dL/min) | ||||||
| gw 20 | 27 | 5904 (4101; 8358) | 33 | 6551 (4899; 8712) | −376 (−1792; 1040) | 0.6 |
| gw 28 | 25 | 7239 (6201; 8984) | 32 | 6394 (5022; 8533) | 752 (−418; 1923) | 0.3 |
| gw 34 | 25 | 7161 (5703; 9933) | 33 | 8051 (6002; 10266) | −148 (−1685; 1389) | 0.8 |
| mean change | 25 | 2037 (647; 3108) | 32 | 1232 (−467; 2552) | 482 (−1152; 2120) | 0.6 |
| Fasting Insulin (μU/mL) | ||||||
| gw 20 | 27 | 14.6 (8.1; 20.2) | 33 | 13.1 (8.3; 18.5) | 1.64 (−2.37; 5.66) | 0.5 |
| gw 28 | 25 | 18.2 (12.1; 22.2) | 34 | 14.5 (10.0; 20.3) | 2.83 (−2.26; 7.92) | 0.16 |
| gw 34 | 25 | 20.6 (14.5; 25.1) | 34 | 16.0 (12.5; 23.6) | 0.91 (−6.12; 7.94) | 0.3 |
| mean change | 25 | 4.4 (1.4; 11.3) | 33 | 4.4 (0.2; 6.2) | −0.48 (−6.14; 5.18) | 0.7 |
| Insulin 3h-iAUC (μU/mL/min) | ||||||
| gw 20 | 27 | 10421 (6846; 19130) | 33 | 10925 (8523; 13941) | −545 (−6187; 5096) | 0.8 |
| gw 28 | 25 | 15972 (8865; 19245) | 33 | 10269 (8910; 13994) | 3893 (−357; 8143) | 0.07 |
| gw 34 | 25 | 17828 (12360; 26306) | 33 | 14178 (10829; 18116) | 5346 (−4105; 14796) | 0.3 |
| mean change | 25 | 6137 (677; 13281) | 32 | 4167 (933; 6097) | 705 (−569; 14266) | 0.1 |
| HOMA-IR 2 | ||||||
| gw 20 | 27 | 2.98 (1.49; 3.96) | 34 | 2.61 (1.42; 3.71) | 0.36 (−0.53; 1.25) | 0.5 |
| gw 28 | 28 | 3.18 (2.07; 4.54) | 34 | 2.92 (1.93; 4.66) | 0.08 (−1.11; 1.26) | 0.8 |
| gw 34 | 28 | 3.63 (2.32; 5.05) | 34 | 3.27 (2.50; 4.85) | −0.37 (−2.02; 1.28) | 1.0 |
| mean change | 27 | 0.73 (−0.17; 2.34) | 34 | 1.09 (0.16; 1.60) | −0.59 (−2.00; 0.82) | 0.6 |
| Matsuda Index 3 | ||||||
| gw 20 | 27 | 2.82 (2.04; 5.49) | 33 | 3.22 (2.40; 4.33) | 0.24 (−0.83; 1.31) | 0.9 |
| gw 28 | 25 | 2.17 (1.80; 3.54) | 33 | 2.84 (2.22; 3.85) | −0.34 (−1.11; 0.43) | 0.07 |
| gw 34 | 25 | 1.78 (1.54; 2.97) | 33 | 1.75 (2.30; 2.97) | 0.20 (−0.81; 0.41) | 0.3 |
| mean change | 25 | −1.33 (−2.95; −0.43) | 32 | −1.02 (−1.37; −0.42) | −0.64 (−1.49; 0.21) | 0.3 |
| McAuley-Index 4 | ||||||
| gw 20 | 27 | 1.49 (0.39) | 33 | 1.57 (0.34) | −0.08 (−0.27; 0.11) | 0.4 |
| gw 28 | 25 | 1.32 (0.40) | 34 | 1.40 (0.24) | −0.08 (−0.25; 0.08) | 0.3 |
| gw 34 | 25 | 1.22 (0.30) | 34 | 1.28 (0.25) | −0.06 (−0.20; 0.09) | 0.4 |
| mean change | 25 | −0.28 (−0.42; −0.13) | 33 | −0.24 (−0.41; −0.12) | 0.02 (−0.10; 0.15) | 0.9 |
| Maternal anthropometric parameters | ||||||
| Gestational weight gain (between gw 20 and gw34) (kg) | ||||||
| 26 | 5.65 (3.10; 7.50) | 33 | 5.67 (3.60; 8.55) | −1.10 (−2.89; 0.68) | 0.4 | |
| Excess gestational weight gain, n (%) 5 | ||||||
| 26 | 18 (69.2%) | 33 | 24 (72.7%) | - | 0.8 | |
| Maternal fat mass (%) | ||||||
| gw 20 | 28 | 39.57 (6.62) | 34 | 40.04 (5.12) | −0.47 (−3.45; 2.51) | 0.8 |
| gw 28 | 27 | 39.57 (5.76) | 33 | 39.26 (4.97) | 0.31 (−2.46; 3.08) | 0.8 |
| gw 34 | 26 | 38.88 (6.75) | 33 | 38.55 (4.54) | 0.33 (−2.62; 3.28) | 0.8 |
| mean change | 26 | −1.70 (−2.71; 0.53) | 33 | −1.26 (−2.84; 0.80) | 0.27 (−1.09; 1.63) | 0.7 |
| Pregnancy outcomes | ||||||
| Gender (female) | ||||||
| 28 | 15 (53.6%) | 33 | 17 (51.5%) | - | 0.9 | |
| Gestational age (week) | ||||||
| 28 | 38.7 (1.65) | 33 | 39.1 (1.43) | −0.39 (−1.18; 0.40) | 0.3 | |
| Birth weight (g) | ||||||
| 28 | 3383 (430) | 33 | 3370 (458) | 12.97 (−216; 242) | 0.9 | |
| Birth Length (cm) | ||||||
| 28 | 50.65 (2.14) | 32 | 51.30 (1.96) | −0.66 (−1.72; 0.41) | 0.2 | |
| Head circumference (cm) | ||||||
| 22 | 34.7 (1.30) | 26 | 34.3 (1.88) | 0.45 (−0.51; 1.40) | 0.3 | |
| Appropriate for gestational age, n (%) | ||||||
| 28 | 17 (60.7%) | 33 | 27 (81.8%) | - | 0.2 | |
| Cesarean section, n (%) | ||||||
| 28 | 5 (17.9%) | 30 | 8 (26.7%) | - | 0.4 | |
| Pregnancy complications, n (%) | ||||||
| 26 | 4 (15.4%) | 27 | 5 (18.5%) | - | 0.5 | |
1 Low glycemic load diet (LGL) minus high glycemic load diet (HGL) group; note that mean differences were only calculated for continuous variables. 2 Homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMAIR) = (fasting glucose (mg/dL) × fasting insulin (uU/mL)/405) [22]. This model assumes that normal individuals have an insulin resistance of 1. High HOMAIR scores denote a low insulin sensitivity (i.e., increased insulin resistance). 3 Matsuda-Index: the insulin sensitivity index (ISI) was calculated using the Matsuda-DeFronzo equation: ISI = 10,000/Square root of ([fasting glucose × fasting insulin] × [mean post load glucose × mean post load insulin]) [23]. 4 McAuley-Index = exp (2.63–0.28 ln [fasting serum insulin] - ln [fasting serum triglycerides]) [24]. 5 according to Institute of Medicine guidelines: recommended upper range of weight gain in the second and third trimester: 0.6 lb/week/0.272 kg/week [27]. Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; iAUC, incremental area under the curve.