Table 1.
Study and Participant characteristics.
| Study | Study ID | Year | Type of Study | Age (Mean ± SD (years)) | Population | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HYA | HOA | HYA | HOA | ||||
| Beurskens et al. [41] | 1 | 2014 | Cross-sectional | 25 ± 3 | 71 ± 4 | 15 | 10 |
| Chen et al. [57] | 2 | 2017 | Cross-sectional | NA | 78.1 ± 6 | NA | 90 |
| Fraser et al. [59] | 3 | 2016 | Cross-sectional | 22 ± 2 | 67 ± 5 | 19 | 14 |
| George et al. [60] | 4 | 2019 | Cross-sectional | NA | 76 ± 7 | NA | 325 |
| Holtzer et al. † [35] | 5 | 2011 | Cross-sectional | 19–29 | 69–88 | 11 | 11 |
| Holtzer et al. † [36] | 6 | 2016 | Cross-sectional | NA | 74 ± 6 | NA | 167 |
| Holtzer et al. [37] | 7 | 2016 | Cross-sectional | NA | 77 ± 7 | NA | 314 |
| Holtzer et al. [34] | 8 | 2017 | Cross-sectional | NA | 77 ± 7 | NA | 318 |
| Holtzer et al. [33] | 9 | 2018 | Cross-sectional | NA | 77 ± 7 | NA | 315 |
| Holtzer et al. [31] | 10 | 2019 | Cross-sectional | NA | 78 ± 6 | NA | 75 |
| Holtzer et al. † [32] | 11 | 2019 | Cross-sectional | NA | 78 ± 6 | NA | 83 |
| Lin et al. [38] | 12 | 2016 | Cross-sectional | 20–27 | NA | 24 | NA |
| Lu et al. † [40] | 13 | 2015 | Cross-sectional | 23 ± 2 | NA | 17 | NA |
| Lucas et al. † [42] | 14 | 2018 | Cross-sectional | NA | 75 ± 5 | NA | 55 |
| Meester et al. [45] | 15 | 2014 | Cross-sectional | 28 ± 6 | NA | 17 | NA |
| Metzger et al. [46] | 16 | 2017 | Cross-sectional | 28,19–39 | NA | 12 | NA |
| Mirelman et al. † [48] | 17 | 2014 | Cross-sectional | 31 ± 4 | NA | 23 | NA |
| Mirelman et al. † [47] | 18 | 2017 | Cross-sectional | 31 ± 4 | 70 ± 6 | 23 | 20 |
| Osofundiya et al. [51] | 19 | 2016 | Cross-sectional | NA | 81 ± 7 | NA | 20 |
| Stuart et al. [54] | 20 | 2019 | Cross-sectional | 20 ± 1 | 73 ± 8 | 17 | 18 |
| Verghese et al. [55] | 21 | 2017 | Cross-sectional | NA | 75 ± 6 | NA | 166 |
| Wagshul et al. [56] | 22 | 2019 | Cross-sectional | NA | >65 | NA | 55 |
| PD | HOA | PD | HOA | ||||
| Al-yahya et al. † [29] | 23 | 2019 | Cross-sectional | 66 ± 6 | 60 ± 7 | 29 | 22 |
| Maidan et al. † [44] | 24 | 2016 | Cross-sectional | 72 ± 1 | 70 ± 1 | 68 | 38 |
| Maidan et al. † [43] | 25 | 2018 | RCT | 72 ± 1 | NA | 64 | NA |
| Nieuwhof et al. [50] | 26 | 2016 | Cross-sectional | 71 ± 5 | NA | 14 | NA |
| Stroke | HOA | Stroke | HOA | ||||
| Al-yahya et al. † [30] | 27 | 2016 | Cross-sectional | 60 ± 15 | 54 ± 9 | 19 | 20 |
| Chatterjee et al. † [63] | 28 | 2019 | Cross-sectional | 60 ± 10 | NA | 33 | NA |
| Hermand et al. [61] | 29 | 2019 | Cross-sectional | 71 ± 10 | NA | 11 | NA |
| Liu et al. [39] | 30 | 2018 | Cross-sectional | 52 ± 11 | NA | 23 | NA |
| Mori et al. [49] | 31 | 2018 | Cross-sectional | 61 ± 9 | 66 ± 1 | 14 | 14 |
| MS | HOA | MS | HOA | ||||
| Chaparro et al. † [52] | 32 | 2017 | Cross-sectional | 56 ± 5 | 63 ± 4 | 10 | 12 |
| Hernandez et al. † [62] | 33 | 2016 | Cross-sectional | 57 ± 5 | 61 ± 4 | 8 | 8 |
| Saleh et al. [53] | 34 | 2018 | Cross-sectional | 50 ± 8 | 50 ± 9 | 14 | 14 |
| MCI | HOA | MCI | HOA | ||||
| Doi et al. † [58] | 35 | 2013 | Cross-sectional | 75 ± 7 | NA | 16 | NA |
Note: Values are in mean ± SD or as otherwise indicated, † represents studies included in the meta-analysis. Abbreviations: MCI, Mild cognitive impairment; MS, Multiple Sclerosis; PD, Parkinson’s Disease; HOA, Healthy Older adults; HYA, Healthy Young Adults; RCT, Randomized Controlled Trial; NA, not available.