Table 3.
Neuroprotective effects of probiotics on pathological features of PD.
| Probiotic Type | Concentrations | Treatment Duration | Tested in | Main Results | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis, Bifidobacterium breve | X | Co-culture with probiotic | In vitro. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from PD patients. | • Decrease of pro-inflammatory cytokines • Increase of anti-inflammatory cytokines • Reduced ROS production |
[244] |
| Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis, Bifidobacterium breve | X | 1h probiotic exposure or 1 h probiotic + inflammatory stressor |
In vitro. Caco-2 cell line | • Restored the integrity of the epithelial damaged cells | [244] |
| Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis, Bifidobacterium breve | X | 48 h | In vitro. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae inoculation | • Inhibited the growth of potential pathogen bacteria | [244] |
| Bacillus subtilis | X | 13 days | In vivo. Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) model of synucleinopathy | • Inhibited α-syn aggregation • Cleared preformed aggregates |
[245] |
| Lacobacillus rhamnosus GG, Bifidobacterium animalis lactis and Lactobacillus acidophilus | 2 × 106 CFU | 1X a day for 4 weeks | In vivo. MPTP-induced mouse model and Rotenone-induced mouse model. | • Neuroprotective effects on dopaminergic cells against MPTP and Rotenone-induced toxicity: o Upregulate expression of BDNF and GDNF o Downregulate expression of MAO-B o Increase levels of butyrate • Prevented behavioral impairment |
[246] |
| Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 | 1 × 109 CFU | 1X a day for 28 days | In vivo. MPTP-induced mouse model | • Neuroprotective effects on dopaminergic cells against MPTP induced toxicity: o Upregulates expression of BDNF o Decreases the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines o Reduces glial reactivity • Improved behavioral impairment |
[248] |
| Clostridium butyricum | 5 × 108 CFU | 1X a day for 4 weeks | In vivo. MPTP-induced mouse model | • Neuroprotective effects on dopaminergic cells against MPTP induced toxicity: o Improved microglia activation and synaptic dysfunction o Increased levels of colonic GLP-1 and GLP-1 receptor in the brain. • Improved behavioral impairment |
[249] |
| Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus rhamnosis, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactococcus lactis | 1 × 1010 CFU | 1X a day for 16 weeks | In vivo. MitoPark mouse model | • Attenuated motor impairment • Reduced dopaminergic cell loss |
[252] |
| Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifigum, Lactobacillus reuteri and Lactobacillus fermentum (capsules) | 8 × 109 CFU | 1X a day for 12 weeks | PD patients | • Decreased MDS-UPDRS scores | [253] |
| Lactobacillus casei Shirota (fermented milk) | 6.5 × 109 CFU | 1X a day for 5 weeks | PD patients | • Improved stool consistency • Reduced bloating and abdominal pain |
[145] |
| Streptococcus salivarius, subsp. Thermophilus, Enterococcus faecium, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus paracasei, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, subsp. Bulgaricus and Bifidobacterium (fermented milk) + Prebiotic fiber | 2.5 × 1011 CFU | 1X a day for 4 weeks | PD patients | • Improved constipation symptoms | [250] |
| Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus gasseri, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium (capsules) | 1 × 1010 CFU | 1X a day for 4 weeks | PD patients | • Improved constipation symptoms | [251] |
| Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium infantis (tablets) | 120 mg/day X |
2X a day for 12 weeks | PD patients | • Reduced bloating and abdominal pain | [146] |
BDNF: brain-derived neurotrophic factor. CFU: colony-forming unit. GDNF: glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor. MAO-B: monoamine Oxidase-B. MDS-UPDRS: The Movement Disorder Society-Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale. MPTP: 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine. PD: Parkinson’s disease. ROS: reactive oxygen species. α-syn: alpha-synuclein. X: CFU was unavailable.