Table 5.

Nutritional and food safety effects of physical and chemical processes in feed and food.

Method	Principle	Method	Effect
		Washing	Changes in enzyme activity [152]
		Removal of external grain parts (dehulling, polishing	Losses in nutritional value (e.g., fibers, minerals vitamins) [143] Removal of contaminants (pesticide residues, toxic elements, microbes, other toxins) [143,144]
		Carbon filtration	Reduction in organic micropollutants [153]
	Reduction, destruction	Thermal treatment, high moisture thermal treatment (roasting, extrusion, cooking, high-pressure cooking, instant catapult steam explosion)	Losses in nutritional value (e.g., proteins, bioactive compounds) [91] Inactivation of microorganisms [145]
		High hydrostatic pressure	Inactivation of microorganisms and enzymes [142] Retention of organoleptic and nutritional properties [49,142]
		UV light, near-infrared radiation	Reduction in allergenicity of food proteins [154]
		Gamma irradiation	Reduce the allergenicity of food proteins, denature and agglomerate the proteins [155] Lipid and vitamin oxidization [151]
		Pulsed electric field	Inactivation of enzymes and microorganisms, safe for humans, because no dangerous chemical reactions have been detected [141] Low effect on nutritional and organoleptic properties [49] Structure of macromolecules (e.g., starch, protein) changes [156]
		Ultrasound	Reduce the allergenicity of food proteins [154] High-frequency low-power ultrasound has minimal physical and/or chemical effects on food constituents [157,158]
		Cold or nonthermal plasma treatment	Inactivation of microorganisms [159,160] No effect on nutritional properties [161] Improve technological properties [162]
		Electrolyzed water	Reduce the natural microbiota, no effect on nutritional properties [163]
Chemical		Liquid chemical agents (acids)	Changes in nutrient status and sensory properties, food safety concerns [10,164]
		Enzymes	Enzyme specific effects on quality, reduction in safety risks [165]
		Gaseous chemicals (ammonia, ozone)	Reduction in organic micropollutants [153] No hazard on treated materials [163] Oxidization of lipids and phenolic compounds [151]