Table 1.

Summary of already used protein ingredients for meat analogue applications.

Protein Ingredient	Composition (%w/w)	Functionality	Application in Meat Analogues
Soy isolate (alkaline/acid precipitation treatment)	~90 % protein	Good solubility, gelling and emulsification	Structuring process: Extrusion, shear cell, spinning, freeze structuring Role: Protein source, texture, binder, base for fat substitutes, emulsifier Products: Burger patties, minced meat, sausages
Soy isolate (additional heat treatment/ toasted isolate)	~90 % protein, denatured due to heat treatment	Decreased solubility, increased water holding capacity, good gelling	Structuring process: Extrusion, shear cell Role: Protein source, texture, binder, base for fat substitutes Products: Burger patties, minced meat, sausages
Soy concentrate	~70 % protein	Good texturization properties	Process: Extrusion, Shear cell Role: Protein source, texture, binder Products: Burger patties, minced meat, sausages, muscle-type products
Soy milk (spray-dried powder)	>45% protein, ~30 % fat	High solubility, good emulsification properties	Process: Freeze structuring Role: Emulsifier, texture Products: Tofu and yuba production
Soy flour/meal (defatted)	~43–56% protein, ~0.5-9% fat, ~3–7% crude fibre, >30% total carbohydrate	Water binding capacity and fat retention, native protein	Process: Extrusion Role: Texture, Binder Products: Burger patties, minced meat, sausages, muscle-type products
Wheat Gluten isolate	75–80% protein, 15–17% carbohydrates, 5–8% fat	Binding, Dough forming/ Cross-linking capacity via S-S bridges, low solubility	Structuring process: Extrusion, shear cell Role: Adhesion, texture Products: Burger patties, muscle-type products
Pea isolate	~85% protein	Water and fat binding, emulsification, and firm texture after thermal processing	Process: Extrusion, shear cell, spinning Role: Emulsifier, texture, Binder Products: Burger patties, minced meat, sausages, muscle-type products