Table 1.
Characteristics of the study subjects.
| Measurement Item | All | Male | Female | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Young (20–39 Years) | Middle-Aged (40–59 Years) | Old (≥60 Years) | All | Young (20–39 Years) | Middle-Aged (40–59 Years) | Old (≥60 Years) | ||
| N | 805 | 310 | 103 | 118 | 89 | 495 | 120 | 188 | 187 |
| Age, year | 51.1 ± 14.8 | 49.1 ± 14.8 | 32.5 ± 4.6 | 49.6 ± 5.5 | 67.7 ± 5.8 | 52.3 ± 14.6 ** | 32.5 ± 5.1 | 50 ± 5.8 | 67.3 ± 5.8 |
| Alcohol intake, g/day | 11 ± 19 | 21.8 ± 24.2 | 19.8 ± 25.6 | 25.8 ± 24.8 | 19 ± 20.8 | 4.2 ± 10.1 *** | 4.3 ± 9.9 | 6.2 ± 12.4 | 2.3 ± 6.9 b |
| Smoking, % | 19.5 | 32.6 | 37.9 | 37.3 | 20.2 | 11.3 | 11.7 | 17.6 | 4.8 |
| Habitual exercise, % | 9.2 | 11.3 | 12.6 | 11.9 | 9 | 7.9 | 9.2 | 6.9 | 8 |
| Medication, % | 19.3 | 16.5 | 2.9 | 13.6 | 36 | 21 | 0.8 | 11.2 | 43.9 |
| VFA, cm2 | 79.11 ± 42.28 | 102.81 ± 44.96 | 92.2 ± 47.62 | 108.1 ± 41.09 a | 108.07 ± 45.03 a | 64.27 ± 32.74 *** | 53.13 ± 32.36 | 63.31 ± 31.13 a | 72.4 ± 32.49 ab |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 22.58 ± 3.46 | 23.61 ± 3.23 | 23.14 ± 3.86 | 24.13 ± 2.87 | 23.47 ± 2.8 | 21.94 ± 3.45 *** | 21.22 ± 3.95 | 21.76 ± 3.16 | 22.58 ± 3.28 a |
| Total carotenoid, μg/mL | 1.47 ± 0.72 | 1.15 ± 0.53 | 1.07 ± 0.5 | 1.13 ± 0.53 | 1.28 ± 0.56 a | 1.67 ± 0.75 *** | 1.5 ± 0.68 | 1.61 ± 0.68 | 1.84 ± 0.84 ab |
| Lutein, μg/mL | 0.34 ± 0.14 | 0.3 ± 0.13 | 0.25 ± 0.1 | 0.31 ± 0.12 a | 0.35 ± 0.15 a | 0.36 ± 0.15 *** | 0.3 ± 0.11 | 0.35 ± 0.15 a | 0.41 ± 0.16 ab |
| Zeaxanthin, μg/mL | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 0.06 ± 0.02 |
| β-Cryptoxanthin, μg/mL | 0.15 ± 0.1 | 0.11 ± 0.06 | 0.1 ± 0.05 | 0.1 ± 0.05 | 0.14 ± 0.08 ab | 0.17 ± 0.11 *** | 0.13 ± 0.06 | 0.17 ± 0.11 a | 0.21 ± 0.12 ab |
| α-Carotene, μg/mL | 0.17 ± 0.16 | 0.13 ± 0.14 | 0.13 ± 0.15 | 0.13 ± 0.13 | 0.14 ± 0.14 | 0.2 ± 0.16 *** | 0.21 ± 0.19 | 0.19 ± 0.12 | 0.21 ± 0.17 |
| β-Carotene, μg/mL | 0.5 ± 0.42 | 0.3 ± 0.28 | 0.25 ± 0.25 | 0.28 ± 0.28 | 0.39 ± 0.28 ab | 0.62 ± 0.44 *** | 0.5 ± 0.36 | 0.57 ± 0.36 a | 0.74 ± 0.52 ab |
| Lycopene, μg/mL | 0.25 ± 0.13 | 0.24 ± 0.13 | 0.28 ± 0.14 | 0.24 ± 0.12 | 0.19 ± 0.13 ab | 0.26 ± 0.14 | 0.3 ± 0.13 | 0.27 ± 0.13 | 0.21 ± 0.12 ab |
| BDHQ | |||||||||
| Total dietary fiber, g/day | 10.74 ± 4.40 | 11.11 ± 4.74 | 9.55 ± 3.52 | 10.58 ± 4.23 | 13.63 ± 5.56 ab | 10.51 ± 4.16 | 8.98 ± 3.75 | 10.36 ± 3.93 a | 11.63 ± 4.33 ab |
| Soluble dietary fiber, g/day | 2.66 ± 1.20 | 2.72 ± 1.32 | 2.33 ± 0.99 | 2.57 ± 1.18 | 3.38 ± 1.56 ab | 2.62 ± 1.13 | 2.26 ± 1.01 | 2.60 ± 1.08 a | 2.86 ± 1.19 a |
| Insoluble dietary fiber, g/day | 7.73 ± 3.05 | 8.04 ± 3.24 | 6.95 ± 2.50 | 7.67 ± 2.90 | 9.79 ± 3.72 ab | 7.54 ± 2.90 * | 6.46 ± 2.61 | 7.42 ± 2.71 a | 8.37 ± 3.04 ab |
| Fresh vegetables, g/day | 25 ± 19.88 | 25.31 ± 20.77 | 23.94 ± 20.38 | 26.56 ± 20.33 | 25.24 ± 21.89 | 24.8 ± 19.32 | 23.26 ± 18.81 | 26.33 ± 19.04 | 24.25 ± 19.91 |
| Green leafy vegetables, g/day | 28.89 ± 28.61 | 26.73 ± 27.81 | 26.09 ± 24.93 | 25.28 ± 29.7 | 29.4 ± 28.5 | 30.25 ± 29.04 | 27.64 ± 25.94 | 31.95 ± 31.01 | 30.21 ± 28.89 |
| Carrot and pumpkin, g/day | 16.77 ± 15.07 | 14.23 ± 13.52 | 12.9 ± 12.13 | 13.84 ± 14.64 | 16.28 ± 13.39 | 18.36 ± 15.78 *** | 17.08 ± 16.07 | 17.33 ± 14.01 | 20.22 ± 17.11 |
| Tomato, g/day | 19.39 ± 21.72 | 18.49 ± 19.96 | 17.35 ± 19.82 | 17.9 ± 19.31 | 0.58 ± 21.01 | 19.95 ± 22.76 | 17.14 ± 16.98 | 20.25 ± 23.81 | 21.45 ± 24.79 |
| Cabbage, g/day | 29.31 ± 26.34 | 30.27 ± 27.24 | 26.29 ± 22.66 | 30.84 ± 25.52 | 34.12 ± 33.34 | 28.71 ± 25.76 | 25.34 ± 23.09 | 27.5 ± 23.32 | 32.1 ± 29.23 |
| Radish and turnip, g/day | 15.31 ± 17.42 | 15.3 ± 18.84 | 12.86 ± 13.64 | 13.57 ± 17.25 | 20.4 ± 24.45 ab | 15.31 ± 16.49 | 13.12 ± 14.23 | 13.47 ± 14.28 | 18.57 ± 19.25 ab |
| Root vegetables, g/day | 29.88 ± 25.06 | 27.52 ± 26.27 | 24.74 ± 20.37 | 25.95 ± 24.16 | 32.83 ± 33.55 | 31.36 ± 24.18 * | 30.29 ± 23.55 | 31.42 ± 24.36 | 31.99 ± 24.49 |
| Pickled green leafy vegetables, g/day | 6.08 ± 8.96 | 6.84 ± 9.05 | 4.59 ± 5.33 | 6.1 ± 7.5 | 10.42 ± 12.67 ab | 5.6 ± 8.88 | 3.36 ± 6.37 | 4.15 ± 6.81 | 8.5 ± 11.08 ab |
| Pickled other vegetables, g/day | 8.17 ± 10.84 | 8.46 ± 11.18 | 3.35 ± 4.66 | 9.39 ± 11.66 a | 13.13 ± 13.39 ab | 7.98 ± 10.62 | 4.27 ± 6.55 | 6.06 ± 8.32 | 12.3 ± 13.09 ab |
| 100% juice (vegetables and fruits), g/day | 42.49 ± 74.38 | 39.83 ± 62.93 | 31.29 ± 50.86 | 40.6 ± 66.35 | 48.68 ± 69.92 | 44.16 ± 80.74 | 39.25 ± 58.06 | 41.69 ± 83.69 | 49.8 ± 89.8 |
The mean values ± SD of characteristics in the study subjects are shown. *, **, *** Mean values are significantly different from those in males (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001). a Mean values are significantly different from those in the young group (p < 0.05). b Mean values are significantly different from those in the middle-aged group (p < 0.05). For carotenoids analysis, Mann–Whitney U test and Kruskal–Wallis test (post hoc: Bonferroni) were used. For the others, Student’s t-test and ANOVA (post hoc: Bonferroni) were used. VFA, visceral fat area; BMI, body mass index; BDHQ, brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire.