Table 4.
Application and effects of using the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) in diets of salmonids/.
| Salmonids | Dietary Yellow Mealworms | Effects | Recommended FM Replacement Level or Inclusion Doses | References | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fish Species | Initial Body Weight (g) | Worm Stage/Form | FM Replacement Levels OR Dietary Inclusion Doses |
Duration (days) | |||
| Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) | ~115.9 | Larvae | 25% and 50% dietary inclusion | 75 | No effects on growth and body composition The lowest HSI values |
Up to 50% dietary inclusion | Gasco, et al. [49] |
| ~5.01 | Defatted larvae | 20%, 30%, 60%, and 100% of FM replaced | 60 | ↑ YMW levels = ↓ FCR, ↓ FI, ↑ FBW, and ↑ PER No effects on feed palatability |
Up to 100% FM replacement | Saravanan, et al. [51] | |
| ~115.6 | Full-fat larvae |
25% and 50% dietary inclusion (= 35% and 67% of FM replaced) |
90 | ↑ Intestinal CAT, SOD, GPx, GR, and G6PD ↓ Intestinal MDA levels No effects on ceruloplasmin, LYZ activity, and NO levels Faster serum antibacterial activity ↑ Serum trypsin inhibition and MPO activity |
Up to 50% dietary inclusion | Henry, et al. [55] | |
| ~115.6 ~110 |
Full-fat larvae |
Growth trial Digestibility trial |
90 21 |
No effects on FBW, WG, and VSI ↓ HSI ↓ADC of CP in the 50% YMW group No effects on ADC of DM and CL ↑ CP and ↓ CL contents in fish fillets |
Up to 50% dietary inclusion | Belforti, et al. [45] | |
| 25% and 50% dietary inclusion | |||||||
| ~115.6 | Full-fat larvae |
25% and 50% dietary inclusion | 90 | No effects on pH, water-holding capacity, cooking loss of fillets, fillet color, and proximate composition of fillets ↑ C16:0, C18:1n9, and C18:2n6 and ↓ EPA and DHA in fillets |
Not higher than 25% dietary inclusion | Iaconisi, et al. [52] | |
| ~115.6 | Full-fat larvae |
25% and 50% dietary inclusion | 90 | ↑ Alanine, taurine, tyrosine, cysteine, leucine, and proline in fillets of fish in the 50% YMW group ↓ Glutamine, histidine, methionine, and threonine in fillets of fish in the 50% YMW group Lowest glycine and histidine in fillets of fish in the 50% YMW group |
Not higher than 25% dietary inclusion | Iaconisi, et al. [53] | |
| ~8.58 | Live worms | 15%, 30%, and 60% dietary inclusion of live worm | 30 | ↑ Growth and PER with ↑ YMW levels ↓ FCR in the 60% YMW group Highest CP and CL in fillets ↑ Protease and amylase activities in the 60% YMW group |
Up to 60% dietary inclusion of live worms | Harsij, et al. [56] | |
| ~53.39 | Full-fat larvae |
20% dietary inclusion | 71 | ↑ WG and No effects on FCR, SGR, PER ↓ Intestinal villus height Highest Enterobacteriaceae, Cl. leptum subgroup, Cl. coccoides–Eubacterium rectale cluster, and Lactobacillus sp./Enterococcus sp. |
20% dietary inclusion | Józefiak, et al. [66] | |
| ~5.01 | Defatted larvae | Dietary inclusion of 5%, 7.5%, 15%, or 25% (equal to 20%, 30%, 60%, and 100% of FM replaced) |
90 | ↑ FBW, FI, SGR, and PER Better FCR No effects on body composition and ADC of DM, CP, CL, and GE ↑ Eetention of protein, phosphorus, and energy |
Up to 100% FM replacement | Rema, et al. [48] | |
| ~115.2 | Full-fat larvae |
60% dietary inclusion | 90 | 598 OTUs belonging to Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria 33% of OTUs in the gut absent before FM replacement |
60% dietary inclusion | Antonopoulou, et al. [57] | |
| ~10 | Larvae powder | 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of FM replaced | 56 | No effects on HSI, VSI, and SR% No effects on RBCs count, MCV, and MCHC ↓ Hb, CHO, and HTC with ↑ YMW levels No effects on ALT, AST, TG, GLU, HDL, and LDL No effects on IgM, cortisol, and ACH50 |
25% FM replacement | Valipour, et al. [54] | |
| ~78.3 ~94.6 |
Partially defatted larvae | Growth trial Digestibility trial 5%, 10%, and 20% dietary inclusion (equal to 25%, 50%, and 100% of FM replaced) |
154 | No effects on SGR, FCR, PER, FI, IFBW, CF, and VSI No effects on ALT, AST, GDH, G6PD, ME, and FAS ↑ ADC of CP in control and 25% YMW groups No effects on ADC of DM, EE, and GE |
20% dietary inclusion (100% FM replacement) | Chemello, et al. [21] | |
| ~1.11 | Full-fat larvae |
7%, 14%, 21%, and 28% dietary inclusion | 56 | No effects on CF, VSI, HSI, body composition, and SR% No effects on ALT, AST, ALP, ALB, TP, TCHO, SOD, GPx, and TBIL Highest MPO in the 7% YMW group Highest LYZ in 14% and 28% YMW groups |
14% dietary inclusion | Jeong, et al. [22] | |
| Black sea trout (Salmo trutta labrax) | ~2010 (♀) ~1607 (♂) |
Dried larvae | 25% of the weekly feed amount Two or three days a week |
50 | No effects on the number of eggs Egg diameters smaller in control than YMW groups ↑ Sperm volume and concentration in YMW groups |
25% of the weekly feed amount before breeding |
Gelinçek and Yamaner [43] |
| Sea trout (Salmo trutta m. trutta) |
~0.14 | Enzymatically hydrolyzed Or non-processed full-fat larvae |
20% inclusion of YMW in diets (200 g/kg diet) |
60 | Lowest mortality and highest RGR ↑ HSI and VSI No effects on intestinal amylase, lipase, and trypsin activities No effects on hepatic ALT and AST |
20% dietary inclusion | Hoffmann, et al. [42] |
Abbreviations: ACH50: alternative complement; ADC: apparent digestibility coefficient; ALB: albumin; ALP: alkaline phosphatase; ALT: alanine aminotransferase; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; CAT: catalase; CF: condition factor; CL: crude lipids; CP: crude protein; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; DM: dry matter; EE: ether extract; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; FAS: fatty acid synthase; FBW: final body weight; FCR: feed conversion ratio; FI: feed intake; FM: fish meal; G6PD: glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; GDH: glutamate dehydrogenase; GE: gross energy; GLU: glucose; GR: glutathione reductase; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; Hb: hemoglobin; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; HSI: hepatosomatic index; HTC: hematocrit; IBW: initial body weight; IFBW: individual final body weight; IWG: individual weight gainl LDL: low-density lipoprotein; LYZ: lysozyme activity; MCHC: mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration; MCV: mean corpuscular volume; MDA: malondialdehyde; ME: malic enzyme; MPO: myeloperoxidase; NO: nitric oxide; OTUs: operational taxonomic units; PER: protein efficiency ratio; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids; RBCs: Rrd blood cells; RGR: relative growth rate; SFA: saturated fatty acids; SGR: specific growth rate; SOD: superoxide dismutase; SR%: survival rate percentage; TBIL: total bilirubin; TCHO: total cholesterol; TG: triglycerides; TP: total protein; VSI: viscerosomatic index; WG: weight gain; YMW: yellow mealworm; ↑ = increase; ↓ = decrease.