Table 2.
Biomarkers associated with CVD.
| Biomarker | Functions | Disease Associated |
|---|---|---|
| ANP and BNP | ANP and BNP are secreted by cardiac cells during HF to counteract the onset of volume and pressure overload through their vasodilator and natriuretic effects | ANP and BNP are currently utilized as biomarkers for HF and myocardial infarction. Especially for two specific HF categories, HFmrEF and HF with HFpEF [21,127] |
| TnI and TnT | Troponins regulate calcium-mediated interaction between actin and myosin, thus are related to myocardial contractility | TnI and TnT are currently used as necrosis markers because their serum levels may be predictive for cardiovascular death in subjects with myocardial infarction and HF. They are proposed as biomarkers for diabetic cardiomyopathy [21,127] |
| sST2 | sST2 is related to inflammatory and immune processes | sST2 is a cardiac biomarker cleared by the FDA for prognosis and diagnosis of chronic HF [21,127] |
| FABP4 | FABP4 plays an essential role in the development of insulin resistance and atherosclerosis | FABP4 is a potent biomarker of FAs metabolic alterations and CVD [128] |
| FABP3 | FABP3 transports FAs from the plasma membrane to mitochondria for β-oxidation | FABP3 might be a suitable diagnostic tool in systolic dysfunction, hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathy, including HF [127] |
| PIIINP | PIIINP is an indicator of extracellular matrix turnover | PIIINP is proposed as a marker of early LV dysfunction in patients with insulin resistance, as well as patients with HF with HFpEF [21,127] |
| Galectin-3 | Galectin-3 is locally secreted by activated macrophages and fibroblasts, and it has a pro-fibrotic action | Galectin-3 has been proposed as a good prognostic biomarker of LV systolic dysfunction and HF in diabetic patients, as well as an indicator of cardiac tissue remodeling and fibrosis [21,127] |
| Adiponectin | Adiponectin is a cardioprotective agent | Adiponectin has been proposed as a biomarker of HF [20] |
| NGAL | NGAL functions as an inflammatory regulator of the innate immune system | NGAL is a promising diagnostic biomarker of CVD (atherosclerosis, acute coronary syndrome, stable coronary artery disease, and HF) [129] |
| IGFBP-7 | IGFBP-7 is a modulator of insulin receptor activity and signaling | IGFBP-7 is a promising biomarker for collagen deposition, fibrosis, and cardiac hypertrophy in diabetes, as well as for diastolic dysfunction and HF [127] |
ANP and BNP: natriuretic peptides A and B, HF: heart failure, HFmrEF: mid-range ejection fraction, HFpEF: preserved ejection fraction, TnI: troponin I, TnT: troponin T, sST2: soluble suppression of tumorigenesis 2, FDA: food and drug administration, FABP4: fatty acid-binding protein 4, FABP3: Fatty acids binding protein 3, FAs: fatty acids, PIIINP: pro-collagen type III aminopeptide, LV: left ventricle, NGAL: neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, CVD: cardiovascular disease, IGFBP-7: insulin-like growth factor binding protein-7.