Figure 4.

Engineered microenvironments used to augment the maturity of human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. Current strategies include (A) prolonged culture period, (B) three-dimensional culture periods, (C) co-culture with fibroblasts, endothelial cells and ECMs, and biochemical factors such as (D) hormones including glucocorticoids and T3 and (E) fatty acids rather than glucose for energy production. Approaches also include (F) substrate stiffness and topography, (G) genetic manipulation, (H) biophysical stimulation including mechanical and electrical stimulation and (I) in vivo maturation. However, the mechanisms by which these signals drive cardiomyocyte maturation remain largely unknown.