Table 2.
Summary of cellular or molecular mechanisms underlying the biological effects of (−)-epicatechin as well as (+)-taxifolin and/or (−)-taxifolin.
| Cellular or Molecular Mechanisms | (−)-Epicatechin | (+)-Taxifolin and/or (−)-Taxifolin |
|---|---|---|
| Chelation of Fe2+, Cu2+, Zn2+ | [107] | [108] |
| ROS scavenging | [105,106] | [108] |
| Alterations of iron metabolism | [60,72] | [40,83] |
| Activation of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, or GPx) | [181,182] | [76,183] |
| Reduction of NOX or XO | [61,62,88,109,182,184] | [96,109,110] |
| Elevation of endothelial NO | [38,61,62,68,181] | [66] |
| Reduction of inducible NOS-produced NO | [87,90,131] | [90,129,130,131,185] |
| Arginase inhibition | [58,132,133] | [133] |
| Reduction of ACE | [160,161] | [65,186,187] |
| Nrf2 induction | [61,121] | [76,121,122] |
| NFκB reduction | [87,137,188] | [140] |
| Inflammasome reduction | [141,142] |
Abbreviations: ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme; CAT, catalase; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; NF-κB, nuclear factor-κB; NO, nitric oxide; NOS, nitric oxide synthase; NOX, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase; Nrf2, nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SOD, superoxiddismutase; XO, xanthine oxidase.