Figure 1.

Pancreatic β-cell glucose toxicity found in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). When pancreatic β-cells are exposed to chronic hyperglycemia, β-cell function gradually declines. First, insulin secretion is reduced. Second, insulin biosynthesis is reduced together with reduction of MafA and PDX-1 expression. Third, β-cell number is decreased through the process of apoptosis and/or de-differentiation.