Table 2.
PT and cancer: in vivo evidences. AOM: azoxymethane; HCC: hepatocellular carcinoma; TPA: 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate.
| Cancer Type | Concentration(s) Analyzed |
Administration | Anticancer Effect | Proposed Mechanism | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cervical | PT (1 mM) | Intralesional injection daily for 5 days | PT inhibits tumor development in HPV E6-positive cervical cancer mouse model | Decrease in tumor size due to increase in apoptosis, and downregulation of E6 and VEGF tumor protein levels | [46] |
| Breast | PT (40 μg/kg) + Vitamin E (42 IU/kg or 99 IU/kg) | PT oral 3 times per week Vit E in diet |
PT and vit E inhibited breast tumor growth and invasion in mouse xenograft model | Inhibition of Akt and downregulation of cell cycle proteins | [43] |
| Breast | PT (56 mg/kg every 4 days for 3 weeks) | Oral gavage | PT induces apoptosis and inhibits tumor growth of ER- Breast cancer xenograft model | Inhibition of ER-a36 (a variant of full-length Estrogen receptor) resulting in inhibition of Akt signaling | [41] |
| Prostate | PT (50 mg/kg) | Intraperitoneal Injections daily (5 days/week) for 39 days | PT reduced tumor growth in mouse xenograft model | Downregulation of miR-17-5p and miR-106-5p expression in both tumors and circulation | [53] |
| Breast | PT (10 mg/kg) | Intraperitoneal injections 3 times a week | PT suppressed tumor growth and metastasis in xenograft mouse model | Reduction in src signaling and inhibition of EMT | [42] |
| Pancreatic | PT (100 μg/kg, 500 μg/kg or 1 mg/kg) | Oral gavage | PT inhibited tumor growth rates | Increases MnSOD antioxidant activity; inhibits STAT3 activity | [57] |
| Melanoma | PT (30 mg/kg) every 48 h for 5 weeks | Intravenous | PT decreased tumor growth in mouse xenograft model | Downregulated adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) resulting in decrease Nrf2-mediated antioxidant defenses | [14] |
| Lymphoma | PT (30 mg/kg every 2 days for 20 days) | Intravenous | PT inhibited tumor growth in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma xenograft mouse model | Cytotoxic effect due to reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential and increase in apoptosis and ROS levels | [61] |
| Breast | PT (0.1% w/w in diet) | Oral | PT suppressed tumor growth in triple-negative breast cancer xenograft mouse model | Inhibition of Akt activationand upregulation of Bax | [44] |
| Prostate | PT (50 mg/kg/day) | Intraperitoneal | PT inhibited tumor growth and metastasis in prostate cancer xenografts | Reduction in metastasis-associated protein 1 (MTA1) and increased apoptosis | [52] |
| Endometrial | PT (30 mg/kg/day) + Megestrol acetate (10 mg/kg/day) |
Oral gavage | PT synergizes with megestrol acetate for reduction of tumor growth in xenografts | Suppression of STAT3 activation as well as decreased ER expression | [49] |
| Biliary | PT (30 and 60 mg/kg every 2 days For 3 weeks) |
Intraperitoneal | PT inhibited tumor growth in xenograft mouse model | Inhibited cell progression and induced autophagy | [67] |
| Multiple Myeloma | PT (50 mg/kg/day For 2 weeks) |
Intraperitoneal | PT reduced tumor volume in mouse xenografts | Inhibited cell progression. Induction of apoptosis through increased ROS generation and activation of ERK1/2 and of JNK signaling | [62] |
| Colon | PT (40 ppm diet for 45 weeks) |
Oral | PT reduced AOM-induced colon tumor multiplicity | Inhibits cell proliferation via reduced PCNA expression and reduced beta-catenin and cyclin D1. Reduction of inflammatory markers | [47] |
| Colorectal | PT (20 mg/kg/day) + quercetin (20 mg/kg/day) | Intravenous | PT + QUER inhibited tumor growth by 51% in xenografts | Increase in SOD2 expression and decrease in Bcl-2 expression | [23] |
| Liver | PT (100 and 200 mg/kg/day) | Intraperitoneal | PT dose-dependently inhibited HCC tumor growth in mouse model | Increase in p53 expression and ROS generation and activation of apoptosis | [60] |
| Skin | PT (1-2 μmol) | Topical | PT prevented UV-B induced skin cancer in mouse model | Maintenance of skin antioxidant defenses including Nrf2 activation | [19] |
| Skin | PT (1 and 5 μmol) | Topical | PT suppressed TPA-induced skin cancer in mouse model | Downregulation of iNOS and COX-2 | [58] |
| Glioblastoma Multiforme | PT (2 mg/kg, three times a week) | Intraperitoneal | PT suppressed tumorigenesis in glioma stem cell mouse xenograft | Inhibition of GRP78 | [68] |
| Colon | PT (50 and 250 ppm in diet, 24 weeks) | Oral | PT prevents AOM-induced colon tumorigenesis. | Reduction of NF-κB activation, as well as iNOS and COX-2 expression Activation of Nrf2 signaling | [48] |
| Melanoma | PT (20 mg/kg/day) + QUER (20 mg/kg/day) | Intravenous | PT + QUER shown to inhibit metastasis of melanoma in xenografts | Inhibition of Bcl-2 | [16] |