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. 2021 Mar 23;22(6):3279. doi: 10.3390/ijms22063279

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Correlation between growth factor signaling, the actin cytoskeleton, and CCN2 expression in CHs. The actin cytoskeleton modulates FGF-2 and BMP signaling through the Rac1 pathway, affecting the expression of CCN2 that functions as a mechano-sensing regulator [238]. The CH actin cytoskeleton is regulated through the signaling of the growth factors FGF-2, IGF-1, TGF-β1, and TGF-α. The latter may induce stress fiber formation. Abbreviations: BMP: bone morphogenetic protein, CCN2: connective tissue growth factor, FGF-2: fibroblast growth factor 2, IGF-1: insulin growth factor I, TGF-α: transforming growth factor α, TGF-β1: transforming growth factor β1. Arrows indicate induction.