Table 3.
Bioavailability and efficacy of different antifungal agents tested experimentally in several avian species.
| Antifungal Agent | Status/Species | Administration Route | Dose | Aim | Main Conclusions | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amphotericin B (Liposomal) |
Mallard ducks (Healthy) |
Intratracheal nebulization (atomizer) |
3 mg/kg (single) | PK | Target dose of 1 µg/g of lungs reached (up to 9 days) No toxic changes (histological examination) |
[217] |
| Terbinafine hydrochloride |
Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) (Healthy) |
Oral | 60 mg/kg (single dose) | PK | No adverse effects Antifungal concentration remains above target doses for several hours |
[227] |
| Terbinafine hydrochloride |
African penguins (Healthy) |
Oral | 3/7/15 mg/kg (single dose) 15 mg/kg sid 4 days |
PK | 15 mg/kg per day oral dose = putative treatment Slow elimination and tissue accumulation |
[228] |
| Terbinafine hydrochloride |
Red-tailed hawks (Healthy) |
Oral | 15/30/60 mg/kg (single dose) |
PK | A dose of 22 mg/kg SID may be a potential treatment option to treat aspergillosis in raptors | [228] |
| Terbinafine hydrochloride |
Hispanolian amazons (Healthy) |
Oral | 60 mg/kg (single) | PK | No adverse effect Putative treatment of aspergillosis |
[229] |
| Terbinafine hydrochloride |
Hispanolian amazons (Healthy) |
Nebulization (15 min) | 1 mg/mL solution | PK | Plasma concentration above the target dose up to 4 hr | [218] |
| Itraconazole (Itrafungol) |
African penguins (Healthy) |
Oral | 20 mg/kg (single dose) | PK | Putative cost effective treatment | [230] |
| Itraconazole (Itrafungol) |
Lesser flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) (Healthy) |
Oral | 10 mg/kg (single dose) | PK | Plasma drug concentration > 0.5 µg/mL maintained for at least 24 h after a single dose | [231] |
| Itraconazole (Sporanox/powder) |
Humboldt penguins | Oral (in a fish) | 6/12 mg/kg SID/BID 14 days |
PK | 8.5 mg/kg BID or 20 mg/kg SID of commercial capsule may provide adequate steady-state therapeutic blood levels | [232] |
| Itraconazole (nanoparticules) |
Japanese quail (Infected) |
Nebulization (30 min) | 4%/10% suspension SID 6 days |
EAA | 10% nanosuspension is well tolerated and alleviates acute aspergillosis | [219] |
| Itraconazole (nanostructured lipid carries) |
Falcon (Falco sp.) (Healthy) |
Nebulization (15 min) (nanonebulizer) |
NS | - | No toxic effects on A594 cells Penetrates deeply into the respiratory tract (lungs and air sacs (gammascintigraphy) |
[233] |
| Voriconazole | Falcons (Falco sp.) (Healthy vs. diseased) |
Oral (crop gavage or incorporated into meat) | 12.5 mg/kg BID 7/14 days | PK/ET | High interindividuality of voriconazole/no adverse effects Administration in meat is effective and avoids tress |
[234] |
| Voriconazole | African penguins (Healthy) |
Oral | 5 mg/kg (single dose) 5 mg/kg SID |
PK | Effective for the treatment of aspergillosis Potential toxicity due to drug accumulation |
[235] |
| Voriconazole | Magellanic penguins (Healthy) |
Oral (in a herring) | 2.5/5 mg/kg (single dose) | PK | Above the target dose for least 24 h following the highest dose | [214] |
| Voriconazole | Hispanolian amazons (Healthy) |
Oral | 12/24 mg/kg (single dose) 18 mg/kg QID 11 days |
PK | Decrease in plasma concentration following administration of multiple doses requiring adjustment | [236] |
| Voriconazole | Red-tailed hawks (Healthy) |
Oral (gavage) | 10 mg/kg (single dose) 10 mg/kg BID 14 days |
PK | More frequent dosing (up to QID) may be necessary to maintain target concentration during prolonged therapy | [237] |
| Voriconazole | Falcons (Falco sp.) (Healthy) | Intramuscular injection | 12.5 mg/kg (single dose) | PK | Target plasma concentration (> 1 µg/ml) maintained 16 to 20 h without clinical side effects | [215] |
| Voriconazole | Mallard ducks (Healthy) |
Intravenous injection or oral (liquid/non liquid) |
10 mg/kg (single dose) 10/20/40 mg/kg (single dose) 20 mg/kg SID 21 days |
PK | No overt/histological signs of toxicity A dosing interval of at least 8–12 h at a dose of 20 mg/kg may be required |
[238] |
| Voriconazole | Japanese quail (Infected) |
Oral | 20/40 mg/kg SID | PK/EAA | Prolonged survival and less fungal burden in the lungs with the highest dose. No necrotic lesions (histopathology | [239] |
| Voriconazole | Rock pigeon (Infected) |
Oral | 10 mg/kg BID 20 mg/kg SID |
EAA | Reduction of clinical signs and A. fumigatus elimination at 10 mg/kg BID | [240] |
BID: twice a day; EAA: experimental acute aspergillosis; ET: empirical treatment on birds with spontaneous aspergillosis; NS: not specified; PK: pharmacokinetic studies; QID: four times per day; SC: subcutaneous; SID: once per day.