Table 3.
Adjusted* associations between perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) exposure and cardiometabolic outcomes among all 102 young adults and stratified by race/ethnicity and obesity.
| Outcomes | All Samples (N = 102) | Hispanic White (N = 61) | Other Races‖ (N = 41) | Non-obese (N = 68) | Obese (N = 34) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adiposity | |||||
| Body mass index, BMI (kg/m2) | −0.46 (−1.55, 0.63) | −0.29 (−1.85, 1.27) | −1.05 (−2.58, 0.48) | NA | NA |
| Body fat percent (%) | −1.46 (−3.01, 0.10) | −0.36 (−2.18, 1.46) | −2.93 (−6.73, 0.87) | NA | NA |
| Visceral adipose tissue, VAT (L)‡ | −0.04 (−0.2, 0.11) | 0.03 (−0.18, 0.23) | −0.16 (−0.52, 0.20) | 0.02 (−0.18, 0.21) | 0.03 (−0.25, 0.31) |
| SAAT (L)§ | −0.42 (−1.01, 0.18) | −0.19 (−0.96, 0.58) | −0.95 (−2.09, 0.19) | −0.23 (−0.76, 0.30) | 0.72 (−0.87, 2.30) |
| Hepatic fat fraction (%)‡ | 0.06 (−0.05, 0.17) | 0.21 (0.05, 0.36) | −0.20 (−0.38, −0.03) | 0.10 (−0.03, 0.23) | 0.05 (−0.31, 0.41) |
| VAT-to-SAAT Ratio | 0.06 (−0.03, 0.16) | 0.05 (−0.08, 0.19) | 0.11 (−0.08, 0.30) | 0.11 (−0.01, 0.23) | −0.08 (−0.29, 0.12) |
| Glucose Metabolism Traits | |||||
| Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 0.78 (−0.85, 2.41) | 1.93 (−0.10, 3.97) | 1.94 (−1.79, 5.66) | 0.84 (−0.97, 2.65) | 0.95 (−4.56, 6.47) |
| 30-min glucose after OGTT (mg/dL)§ | 9.20 (4.42, 13.98) † | 12.32 (6.13, 18.51) † | 7.94 (−1.46, 17.35) | 7.76 (2.20, 13.33) | 10.58 (0.10, 21.07) |
| 2-hour glucose after OGTT (mg/dL)§ | 5.57 (−0.43, 11.56) | 8.31 (−0.02, 16.64) | 5.96 (−7.16, 19.08) | 7.81 (0.32, 15.31) | −4.69 (−24.28, 14.91) |
| OGTT glucose area under the curve§ | 1096.83 (554.50, 1639.17) † | 1383.30 (726.82, 2039.77) † | 1214.45 (−38.87, 2467.77) | 1116.15 (422.10, 1810.19) | 959.07 (−313.92, 2232.06) |
| Fasting insulin (μU/mL)‡ | 0.25 (−0.01, 0.52) | 0.31 (0.01, 0.61) | −0.08 (−0.78, 0.63) | 0.17 (−0.15, 0.49) | 0.32 (−0.39, 1.03) |
| 30-min insulin after OGTT (μU/mL)‡§ | 0.22 (0.004, 0.43) | 0.30 (0.08, 0.53) | 0.14 (−0.52, 0.81) | 0.06 (−0.28, 0.40) | 0.02 (−0.31, 0.36) |
| 2-hour insulin after OGTT (μU/mL)‡§ | 0.25 (0.02, 0.49) | 0.38 (0.05, 0.71) | 0.24 (−0.29, 0.78) | 0.07 (−0.25, 0.40) | −0.16 (−0.74, 0.43) |
| OGTT insulin area under the curve‡§ | 0.21 (0.08, 0.35) | 0.28 (0.10, 0.46) | 0.20 (−0.10, 0.50) | 0.06 (−0.14, 0.26) | 0.03 (−0.30, 0.36) |
| HOMA-⇧ | 0.23 (−0.03, 0.49) | 0.25 (−0.02, 0.53) | −0.16 (−0.83, 0.52) | 0.14 (−0.16, 0.45) | 0.32 (−0.37, 1.00) |
| HOMA-IR‡§ | 0.26 (−0.01, 0.53) | 0.33 (0.02, 0.64) | −0.05 (−0.77, 0.67) | 0.18 (−0.15, 0.50) | 0.33 (−0.39, 1.06) |
| Matsuda index‡ | −0.27 (−0.45, −0.09) | −0.35 (−0.58, −0.12) | −0.11 (−0.57, 0.34) | −0.15 (−0.40, 0.09) | −0.21 (−0.75, 0.32) |
| Hemoglobin A1c, HbA1c (mmol/mol) | −0.02 (−0.09, 0.05) | 0.01 (−0.09, 0.11) | −0.11 (−0.26, 0.05) | −0.003 (−0.09, 0.09) | 0.05 (−0.13, 0.23) |
| Lipids | |||||
| LDL (mg/dL)§ | −1.08 (−8.59, 6.42) | 7.63 (−2.44, 17.70) | −1.52 (−8.83, 5.78) | −2.28 (−12.32, 7.77) | 2.64 (−19.53, 24.8) |
| VLDL (mg/dL)‡§ | 0.11 (−0.02, 0.25) | 0.22 (0.04, 0.40) | −0.11 (−0.44, 0.23) | 0.10 (−0.07, 0.28) | −0.20 (−0.51, 0.11) |
| HDL (mg/dL)§ | −2.55 (−4.59, −0.52) | −2.86 (−5.22, −0.51) | −1.77 (−6.99, 3.46) | −2.87 (−5.55, −0.19) | 0.11 (−5.03, 5.26) |
| Triglycerides (mg/dL)‡ | 0.11 (−0.02, 0.25) | 0.22 (0.04, 0.40) | −0.11 (−0.44, 0.23) | 0.10 (−0.07, 0.28) | −0.20 (−0.51, 0.11) |
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | −0.92 (−9.6, 7.76) | 9.83 (−1.80, 21.46) | −4.87 (−14.70, 4.97) | −2.58 (−14.56, 9.39) | −1.23 (−26.16, 23.69) |
Linear regression was used to investigate the associations between PFOA exposure and individual cardiometabolic outcomes adjusting for age, sex, education, race/ethnicity, cigarette and e-cigarette smoking status in the past week, physical activity levels and dietary covariates including total calorie intake, percent calorie intake from fat and protein and glycemic index. For the outcomes of glucose metabolism and lipids, percent body fat was additionally adjusted for in the model. PFOA exposure was scaled by one standard deviation = 0.41. Association estimates β (95% confidence intervals) are presented in the table. False discovery method (FDR) was used to adjust for multiple testing.
Significant associations with FDR values < 0.05 are bolded.
Log transformation was applied to specific outcome variables to approximate normal distributions.
SAAT = Subcutaneous adipose tissue; OGTT = Oral glucose tolerance test; HOMA-β = Homeostatic model assessment-β-cell function; HOMA-IR = Homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance; LDL = Low-density lipoprotein; VLDL = Very low-density lipoprotein; HDL = High-density lipoprotein.
Other races = Non-Hispanic White, Asian, African American, Other/Mixed Races.