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Potential direct microbial mechanisms in systemic immunity. The gut microbiota can contribute to immune responses at distant sites through direct mechanisms such as the translocation of gut microbes and/or their components or their metabolites to the blood circulation and systemic organs. BM, bone marrow; DP, double positive; MΦ, macrophage; ROS, reactive oxygen species; VEGF-B, vascular endothelial growth factor B.
