FIGURE 2.

Immunomodulatory interactions between mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and immune cells. MSCs exert immunomodulatory functions mainly via interactions with immune cells (including T cells, B cells, NK cells, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells, and neutrophils) through cell‐to‐cell contacts and paracrine activity (mainly by secretome). Figure drawn with BioRender (https://biorender.com/). ICAM‐1, intercellular adhesion molecule‐1; IDO, indoleamine‐pyrrole 2,3‐dioxygenase; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; NK, natural killer; PD‐L1, programmed death ligand 1; PD‐L2, programmed death ligand 2; PGE2, prostaglandin E2; TGF‐β, transforming growth factor‐β; TNF‐α, tumor necrosis factor‐α; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor