Table 1.

Characteristics of some natural bio-based monomers used in biomedical applications

Bio-based monomers	Source	Characteristics	References
Itaconic acid	Aspergillus itaconicus	Antimicrobial activity, non-toxic, biocompatible, biodegradable, chemical reactivity, surfactant forming ability, hydrophilic activity, wound-healing activity, coating forming ability, water uptake ability, drug carrier ability, and hydrogel-forming ability	[20–26]
Succinic acid	Actinobacillus succinogenes, Anaerobiospirillum, and Mannheimia succiniciproducens	Biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, chemical reactivity, food additives ability, food flavoring ability, surfactant/detergent extender/foaming ability, drug carrier ability, pH control ability, antimicrobial activity, and corrosion prevention ability	[27–31]
Citric acid	Citrus fruits and Aspergillus niger	Biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, excellent chelating property, anti-odor property, chemical reactivity, pH control ability, food additives ability, food flavoring/preservative ability, and drug carrier ability	[32–37]
Hyaluronic acid	Rooster comb, human (umbilical cord, joint (synovial) fluid, vitreous body, dermis, epidermis), bovine nasal cartilage, and rabbit brain and heart.	Biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, viscoelastic property, excellent gelling property, anti-inflammatory property, wound-healing activity, excellent cosmetic property, and drug carrier ability	[8, 38–41]
Glutamic acid	Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis	Biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic, excellent chelating property, heavy metal removal ability, cosmetic property, drug carrier ability, hydrophilic activity, anionic property, thickener property, aging inhibitor ability, and use as an additive	[42–52]