Table 3.
Logistic multinomial regression for infant feeding and covariables during the first year of life and the adjusted odds ratios with 95% CIs for overweight and obesity among children aged 2 to 5 years exposed to GDM
| Child BMI categories at ages 2 to 5 yearsa | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable | Overweight | Obesity | Overall | ||
| aORb (95% | p valuec | aORb (95% CI) | p valuec | p valuec | |
| Model 1: Any breastfeeding duration (BF) categories | 0.02 | ||||
| Adequate BF (≥6 months) | 1.00 | Referent | 1.00 | ----- | |
| Inadequate BF (<6 months) | 1.10 (0.72, 1.68) | 0.97 | 1.99 (1.23, 3.21) | 0.01 | |
| Model 2: Exclusive BF duration (EBF) categories | <0.01 | ||||
| Adequate EBF (≥6 months) | 1.00 | Referent | 1.00 | ----- | |
| Inadequate EBF (<6 months) | 1.04 (0.68, 1.59) | 0.86 | 2.11 (1.32, 3.35) | <0.01 | |
| Model 3: BF intensity/duration scored categories | |||||
| 12 month score ≥ 6 | 1.00 | Referent | 1.00 | ----- | <0.01 |
| 12 month score < 6 | 1.44 (0.95, 2.19) | 0.09 | 2.21 (1.33, 3.67) | <0.01 | |
| Covariates for model 1 (above)e | |||||
| Beverage feeding (intake from birth to 1 year) | 0.03 | ||||
| No SSB/no 100% fruit juice | 1.00 | Referent | 1.00 | ----- | |
| 100% fruit juice | 1.24 (0.78, 1.98) | 0.48 | 2.18 (1.17, 4.06) | 0.02 | |
| SSB | 1.31 (0.69, 2.50) | 0.67 | 3.22 (1.55, 6.67) | <0.01 | |
| Race/ethnicity, n (%) | 0.03 | ||||
| Non-Hispanic White | 1.00 | Referent | 1.00 | ----- | |
| Hispanic | 1.54 (1.03, 2.38) | 0.04 | 1.61 (1.05, 2.63) | 0.03 | |
| Prenatal 3 h 100 g OGTT sum of 4 z scores | 0.95 (0.87, 1.03) | 0.21 | 1.08 (1.00, 1.16) | 0.04 | 0.04 |
| Size-at-birth percentile categories | <0.001 | ||||
| AGA or SGA | 1.00 | Referent | 1.00 | ----- | |
| LGA | 1.33 (0.80, 2.18) | 0.26 | 2.68 (1.62, 4.41) | <0.001 | |
| Maternal gestational weight gain (kg) | 0.97 (0.96, 1.02) | 0.55 | 0.97 (0.94, 1.01) | 0.14 | 0.80 |
| Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 1.06 (1.03, 1.09) | <0.001 | 1.07 (1.03, 1.10) | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Gestational age at GDM diagnosis (weeks) | 1.01 (0.98-1.04) | 0.41 | 0.97 (0.94, 0.99) | 0.03 | 0.04 |
| Model 4: Any BF-beverage categories | 0.03 | ||||
| Adequate BF, no SSB/100% juice intake | 1.00 | Referent | 1.00 | ----- | |
| Adequate BF, and 100% fruit juice | 1.23 (0.73, 2.34) | 0.65 | 3.13 (1.11, 7.29) | 0.03 | |
| Adequate BF, and SSB or 100% fruit juice | 1.28 (0.71, 2.18) | 0.38 | 3.32 (1.29, 8.25) | <0.01 | |
| Adequate BF, and SSB | 1.31 (0.51, 2.94) | 0.65 | 3.35 (1.32, 8.50) | 0.01 | |
| Inadequate BF, no SSB/100% juice intake | 1.16 (0.53, 2.53) | 0.71 | 3.25 (1.29, 9.62) | 0.03 | |
| Inadequate BF, and 100% fruit juice | 1.31 (0.73, 2.35) | 0.36 | 4.78 (2.33, 12.19) | <0.01 | |
| Inadequate BF, and SSB or 100% fruit juice | 1.32 (0.64, 2.12) | 0.61 | 6.03 (2.45, 12.80) | <0.001 | |
| Inadequate BF, and SSB | 1.60 (0.68, 3.76) | 0.27 | 9.64 (3.70, 15.10) | <0.0001 | |
| Model 5: EBF-beverage categories | <0.01 | ||||
| Adequate EBF, no SSB/100% juice intake | 1.00 | Referent | 1.00 | ----- | |
| Adequate EBF, and 100% fruit juice | 1.28 (0.73, 2.27) | 0.39 | 4.17 (1.55, 11.17) | <0.01 | |
| Adequate EBF, and SSB or 100% fruit juice | 1.05 (0.55, 1.99) | 0.43 | 4.45 (1.40, 8.47) | <0.01 | |
| Adequate EBF, and SSB | 1.26 (0.73, 2.18) | 0.72 | 4.71 (1.43, 15.01) | <0.01 | |
| Inadequate EBF, no SSB/100% juice intake | 1.07 (0.48, 2.37) | 0.57 | 4.43 (1.43, 13.71) | <0.01 | |
| Inadequate EBF, and 100% fruit juice | 1.22 (0.65, 2.29) | 0.53 | 6.40 (2.38, 17.16) | <0.001 | |
| Inadequate EBF, and SSB or 100% fruit juice | 1.29 (0.72, 2.31) | 0.75 | 6.60 (2.71, 14.85) | <0.001 | |
| Inadequate EBF, and SSB | 1.50 (0.65, 3.48) | 0.34 | 12.28 (4.26, 25.40) | <0.0001 | |
Overweight: BMI-for-age 85th to <95th percentile; obesity: BMI-for-age >95th percentile
aOR values
p values <0.05 are significant
overall BF score sum of 12 monthly ratios (birth to 12 months of age; range 0–12)
Covariates are from the regression model with any BF variable
The following covariates were used in all five regression models: maternal education level race/ethnicity, gestational weight gain, prenatal 3 h 100 g OGTT sum of 4 z scores (z score for glucose values at each time point; GDM severity), GDM treatment type, gestational age at GDM diagnosis, WIC participation, parity, and infant sex, infant size for gestational age and sex at birth, and age at BMI measurement