Table 2.
Annual and Baseline UDT Among Long-term Opioid Users of Prevalence and Incidence Cohorts Respectively, Stratified by Age, Sex, Year, Region, Elixhauser Score, and Pain Conditions
| Prevalent long-term opioid users (annual UDT) | Incident long-term opioid users (baseline UDT) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Parameter | Any UDT, % | Any UDTaOR (95% CI) | Any UDT, % | Any UDTaOR (95% CI) |
| Age, years | ||||
| <50 | 49.94 | ref | 12.70 | ref |
| 50–59 | 48.23 | 0.85 (0.84, 0.86) | 10.06 | 0.75 (0.65, 0.87) |
| 60–69 | 42.01 | 0.62 (0.61, 0.63) | 7.40 | 0.59 (0.51, 0.69) |
| 70–79 | 31.00 | 0.40 (0.40, 0.41) | 3.84 | 0.36 (0.30, 0.42) |
| >79 | 16.73 | 0.21 (0.21, 0.22) | 1.44 | 0.17 (0.13, 0.22) |
| Sex | ||||
| Female | 38.26 | ref | 5.75 | ref |
| Male | 40.32 | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03) | 7.73 | 1.18 (1.07, 1.31) |
| Year | ||||
| 2012 | 25.64 | ref | 3.75 | ref |
| 2013 | 29.07 | 1.21 (1.19, 1.22) | 3.92 | 1.14 (0.90, 1.44) |
| 2014 | 32.49 | 1.49 (1.46, 1.51) | 5.19 | 1.37 (1.09, 1.73) |
| 2015 | 37.22 | 1.82 (1.79, 1.84) | 5.27 | 1.61 (1.30, 2.00) |
| 2016 | 41.61 | 2.14 (2.10, 2.17) | 8.31 | 2.00 (1.62, 2.47) |
| 2017 | 47.88 | 2.66 (2.62, 2.70) | 9.98 | 2.12 (1.73, 2.61) |
| 2018 | 52.23 | 3.28 (3.23, 3.33) | 11.09 | 2.48 (1.99, 3.09) |
| Region | ||||
| Midwest | 31.41 | ref | 4.95 | ref |
| Northeast | 30.45 | 1.00 (0.98, 1.02) | 3.53 | 0.86 (0.65, 1.14) |
| South | 48.25 | 1.99 (1.96, 2.01) | 9.61 | 1.99 (1.71, 2.32) |
| West | 29.57 | 0.98 (0.97, 1.00) | 3.76 | 0.90 (0.75, 1.08) |
| Elixhauser category | ||||
| 0 | 38.13 | ref | 6.12 | ref |
| 1 | 39.26 | 1.05 (1.03, 1.06) | 8.17 | 1.06 (0.90, 1.25) |
| 2 | 38.61 | 1.09 (1.07, 1.10) | 6.79 | 1.01 (0.85, 1.20) |
| 3 | 39.11 | 1.15 (1.14, 1.17) | 6.66 | 1.09 (0.90, 1.31) |
| 4 | 39.37 | 1.18 (1.16, 1.20) | 7.14 | 1.26 (1.03, 1.54) |
| 5+ | 39.67 | 1.23 (1.21, 1.25) | 5.54 | 1.08 (0.90, 1.29) |
| Alcohol abuse | 49.30 | 1.07 (1.05, 1.10) | 10.00 | 0.84 (0.61, 1.17) |
| Depression | 45.65 | 1.16 (1.15, 1.17) | 8.35 | 0.97 (0.86, 1.10) |
| Drug abuse | 66.44 | 1.87 (1.85, 1.89) | 22.71 | 2.76 (2.35, 3.24) |
| Psychoses | 42.62 | 1.03 (1.00, 1.05) | 6.92 | 0.99 (0.71, 1.39) |
| Back pain | 51.47 | 2.04 (2.02, 2.06) | 12.91 | 4.10 (3.65, 4.59) |
| Cancer | 21.05 | 0.82 (0.80, 0.84) | 1.18 | 0.46 (0.28, 0.75) |
| Other chronic pain | 54.78 | 1.64 (1.62, 1.66) | 18.69 | 3.66 (3.25, 4.13) |
| Joint pain | 30.54 | 1.10 (1.09, 1.11) | 4.29 | 1.12 (0.98, 1.28) |
| Musculoskeletal pain | 37.07 | 0.97 (0.96, 0.98) | 7.32 | 0.84 (0.71, 0.99) |
| Nerve pain | 45.32 | 1.23 (1.21, 1.24) | 8.88 | 1.25 (1.05, 1.49) |
a
Any UDT indicated either receiving of screening test or definitive test. Screening test is usually performed by immunoassay to detect a drug or drug class. Definitive test identifies specific drugs and metabolites, by gas or liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry, or high-performance liquid chromatography.
UDT, urine drug testing.