. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2021 Apr 2.

Published in final edited form as: Rural Sociol. 2019 Oct 27;85(3):589–622. doi: 10.1111/ruso.12307

Table 2.

Socioeconomic Indicators by Opioid Overdose Mortality Latent Classes for n = 1,929 Non-Metropolitan Counties in the Conterminous U.S.

	(a) Opioid Syndemic	(b) Synthetic + Rx	(c) Prescription Opioid	(d) High Heroin	(e) Emerging Heroin	(f) Low Opioid
Non-Metropolitan Areas, Percent in 2016	n = 47	n = 131	n = 208	n = 92	n = 224	n = 1,225
Demographic and Location
Population density (mi²)	84.83^bcdf	55.31^acf	40.52^abef	49.33^af	63.17^cf	30.48
Age 25 and younger	30.25	29.84^f	30.16^f	29.95	30.4^f	31.44
Age 65 and older	18.03^c	19.15	19.75^af	19.24	18.82	18.73
African American	3.51^f	4.60^f	5.77^f	4.17^f	5.66^f	9.29
Hispanic, any race	9.48	4.97^df	6.10^f	12.18^b	7.84	9.39
Other or multiple races	2.87^cf	4.18	6.54^aef	3.82	4.02^c	4.24
Lived elsewhere 5 years ago	26.88^cf	30.05	32.94^a	33.42	31.44	33.03
Topographic variation (z)	0.21	0.42^f	0.38^f	0.16	0.29^f	−0.13
Water area (z)	−0.17	0.01	−0.06	−0.19	0.14^f	−0.18
Micropolitan	0.51	0.31^c	0.27^e	0.37	0.49^bcf	0.30
Metro adjacent	0.79^bcf	0.50^a	0.56^a	0.67^f	0.65^f	0.47
Interstate density (mi²*100)	1.54	1.49^f	1.07	1.55	1.40^f	0.87
Drug Bisk and Social Disorganization
Adjacent opioid OD rate (100 k)	22.53^bcdef	17.47^acdef	11.77^abf	12.98^abf	10.67^abf	5.87
Non-opioid drug OD rate (100 k)	10.50^f	9.21^f	9.63^f	8.26	8.91^f	6.96
Dispensing rate 2011–2013 (per 100)	117.30^def	112.99^def	115.23^def	84.86^abc	91.47^abc	87.70
Dispensing rate 2014–2016 (per 100)	95.33^df	97.41^df	98.47^def	68.93^abce	83.39^cdf	72.54
Work disabled population	4.40^def	4.70^def	4.48^def	3.68^abc	3.72^abc	3.46
Poverty rate	17.24	18.35^e	18.89^def	16.51^c	16.27^bc	17.38
80:20 income gap	13.47	13.13	13.47^d	12.27^cf	12.76^f	13.63
Vacant housing units	18.85	23.12	23.37	22.26	21.47	20.82
Property crime rate (100 k)	425.77	354.83	366.78	523.46	491.95	367.74
Social capital, organizations (z)	0.07	−0.11^f	−0.26^def	0.63^c	0.31^c	0.54
Social capital, engagement (z)	−0.57^e	−0.51^e	−0.53^e	−0.40^e	0.19^abcdf	−0.29
Employment
Labor force participation	41.59	40.45^ef	39.73^def	41.96^c	43.23^bc	42.98
Agriculture, forestry and fishing	2.58^bcdef	4.10^acf	5.71^abef	5.19^af	3.88^acf	8.46
Mining	1.20	2.58	2.44	2.73	1.62	2.29
Construction	6.71	7.53	7.35	7.19	7.26	7.23
Manufacturing	14.83	11.95^e	12.07^e	13.74	14.74^bcf	11.96
Transportation and warehousing	4.44	3.92	3.98	4.00	3.90	4.21
Retail trade and leisure services	24.57	25.40^f	24.79^f	23.80	25.22^f	23.15
Healthcare and social assistance	15.25^cf	14.99^cf	13.79^ab	14.09	14.06	13.39
Change from 2000
Population density (mi²)	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.01	0.03	0.01
Age 25 and younger	−3.17	−3.10	−2.83	−3.61^f	−3.09	−2.75
Age 65 and older	3.58^f	3.55^f	3.26^f	3.72^f	3.43^f	2.42
Minority population	1.90^cdef	2.35^cf	3.41^ab	3.67^a	3.15^af	3.99
Lived elsewhere 5 years ago	10.43	12.77	13.87	15.83	12.11^f	14.16
Non-opioid drug OD rate (100 k)	6.27	5.77	5.67	5.07	5.88^f	4.16
Dispensing rate 2011–2013 (per 100)	11.42	7.56	15.34	10.29	12.84	10.91
Dispensing rate 2014–2016 (per 100)	−10.56^e	−8.03^e	−1.42	−5.64^e	4.76^abdf	−4.24
Work disabled population	1.82^ef	1.60^f	1.54^f	1.49	1.47^af	1.30
Poverty rate	3.44^f	1.94	2.71^f	2.45	2.97^f	1.35
80:20 income gap	1.44	0.20	0.49	0.95	0.97	0.88
Vacant housing units	4.96	4.12	5.16	4.25	4.34	4.34
Property crime rate (100 k)	−49.30	−37.05	−42.72	−278.2	−239.2	−111.8
Social capital, organizations (z)	−0.26	0.03	0.00	0.12	−0.08	0.05
Social capital, engagement (z)	−0.20	0.09^f	−0.12^e	−0.43^e	0.34^cdf	−0.39
Labor force participation	−2.28^f	−1.12	−1.97^f	−1.43	−1.24^f	−0.38
Change from 1990
Agriculture, forestry and fishing	−2.88^f	−2.95^f	−3.62^f	−3.49^f	−2.96^f	−4.94
Mining	−0.56	−1.22^f	−0.55^f	−0.27	−0.14	0.24
Construction	−0.74^f	0.17^f	0.17^f	0.17	0.30^f	0.81
Manufacturing	−6.07	−7.30^f	−7.42^f	−6.11	−6.59^f	−4.79
Transportation and warehousing	−0.17	−0.03	0.11	−0.02	0.08^f	0.38
Retail trade and leisure services	2.65	4.00	4.00^f	3.47	3.26	2.99
Healthcare and social assistance	7.25^ef	7.40^cef	6.46^b	6.73	6.23^ab	5.97

Notes: Significant difference at p < .05 (Games-Howell test) from the following opioid latent classes denoted by:

^{a =}

opioid syndemic,

^{b =}

synthetic + prescription,

^{c =}

prescription opioid,

^{d =}

high heroin,

^{e =}

emerging heroin, and

^{f =}

low opioid.