. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2021 Apr 2.

Published in final edited form as: Rural Sociol. 2019 Oct 27;85(3):589–622. doi: 10.1111/ruso.12307

Table 3.

Socioeconomic Indicators by Opioid Overdose Mortality Latent Classes for n= 1,001 Metropolitan Counties in the Conterminous U.S.

	(a) Opioid Syndemic	(b) Synthetic + Rx	(c) Prescription Opioid	(d) High Heroin	(e) Emerging Heroin	(f) Low Opioid
Metropolitan Areas, Percent in 2016	n = 82	n = 80	n = 67	n = 72	n = 224	n = 476
Demographic and Location
Population density (mi²)	773.88^c	640.54	131.43^adef	582.13^c	950.91^c	404.21
Age 25 and younger	30.84^ef	31.44^f	31.41^f	32.15	32.52^a	33.39
Age 65 and older	16.30^ef	16.36	17.03^ef	15.58	14.99^ac	14.99
African American	9.50	7.76^f	6.95^f	9.15	10.43	12.63
Hispanic, any race	4.75^ef	5.76^ef	4.39^def	8.50^c	10.31^abc	11.95
Other or multiple races	4.05^ef	4.64	4.56	4.40^e	5.55^ad	5.34
Lived elsewhere 5 years ago	27.15^bef	32.57^a	31.88^f	29.64^f	33.04^af	36.61
Topographic variation (z)	0.22^df	−0.09^c	0.39^bdef	−0.27^ac	−0.06^c	−0.16
Water Area (z)	0.57^cf	0.55^c	0.08^ab	0.43	0.39	0.27
Primary metro county	0.71^c	0.59	0.36^adef	0.63^c	0.67^c	0.57
Interstate density (mi²*100)	6.79^cf	4.41	2.56^ade	4.83^cf	4.74^cf	2.96
Drug Risk and Social Disorganization
Adjacent opioid OD rate (100 k)	25.04^bcdef	18.83^acdef	12.45^abdf	15.35^abcef	11.40^abdf	7.27
Non-opioid drug OD rate (100 k)	7.79	7.25	8.22	7.18	6.93	7.94
Dispensing rate 2011–2013 (per 100)	97.39^cef	90.65^c	116.77^abdef	92.26^c	83.54^ac	84.06
Dispensing rate 2014–2016 (per 100)	84.79^ef	75.36^c	99.08^bef	81.62	73.65^ac	73.98
Work disabled population	3.58^cef	3.36^ce	4.48^abdef	3.18^c	2.90^abc	3.10
Poverty rate	14.16^c	13.28^c	17.17^abdef	13.63^c	13.38^cf	15.24
80:20 income gap	13.87	13.31	12.80	13.20	13.36	13.57
Vacant housing units	12.12	13.29	14.80^def	11.56^c	10.99^cf	12.51
Property crime rate (100 k)	471.98	516.45	455.79	650.19	546.22	479.93
Social capital, organizations (z)	−0.02^c	−0.36^c	−1.48^abdef	−0.65^c	−0.66^c	−0.71
Social capital, engagement (z)	0.44	0.52	0.03^de	0.66^c	0.70^c	0.41
Employment
Labor force participation	46.38^cf	46.34^c	41.89^abdef	46.68^cf	46.97^cf	44.85
Agriculture, forestry and fishing	0.80^cef	1.37^f	2.43^ad	1.17^cf	1.44^af	2.63
Mining	0.5S^f	0.59	1.18^d	0.34^cf	0.51^f	1.04
Construction	6.44^cf	6.98	7.91^ae	6.91	6.77^cf	7.27
Manufacturing	12.28^c	11.56^c	15.58^abef	13.21	11.96^c	11.55
Transportation and warehousing	4.11	4.05	4.58	4.28	4.26	4.13
Retail trade and leisure services	25.56^c	25.51	24.13^a	25.13	25.44	25.15
Healthcare and social assistance	15.20^cef	14.30	13.30^a	14.51	13.78^a	13.68
Change from 2000
Population density (mi²)	0.14	0.44	0.16^ef	0.33^e	0.89^cd	0.56
Age 25 and younger	−2.56	−2.79	−2.74	−2.56	−2.35^f	−2.74
Age 65 and older	2.78^c	3.05	3.92^aef	3.13	2.87^c	2.69
Minority population	3.87^ef	4.00^ef	3.24^def	5.17^c	5.92^abc	5.64
Lived elsewhere 5 years ago	10.02^f	12.35	11.21	9.83^f	10.90^f	13.62
Non-opioid drug OD rate (100 k)	3.93	4.12	4.02	3.32	3.33^f	4.56
Dispensing rate 2011–2013 (per 100)	7.99	8.34	14.74	10.33	8.55	9.85
Dispensing rate 2014–2016 (per 100)	−4.60	−6.95	−2.94	−0.31	−1.33	−0.24
Work disabled population	1.50^ef	1.35^ce	1.70^bdef	1.29^c	1.11^abc	1.21
Poverty rate	3.38	3.03	3.69^f	3.68^f	3.17	2.61
80:20 income gap	2.04^c	1.75^c	0.66^abdef	2.21^cf	2.00^cf	1.54
Vacant housing units	3.14	3.40	4.12^ef	3.00	2.83^c	2.93
Property crime rate (100 k)	−12.04	−4.76	60.48^def	−202.3^c	−68.56^c	−49.78
Social capital, organizations (z)	−0.10	0.01	0.09	−0.09	−0.07	−0.04
Social capital, engagement (z)	0.15^c	0.13^c	0.73^abd	0.19^c	0.40	0.43
Labor force participation	−0.38^c	−0.81^c	−3.10^abdef	−1.08^c	−0.87^c	−0.81
Change from 1990
Agriculture, forestry and fishing	−1.48^f	−1.93	−2.22	−1.77	−1.73^f	−2.50
Mining	−0.08	−0.17	0.10	−0.14^f	−0.12^f	0.11
Construction	−0.74^cf	−0.32	0.24^a	0.06	−0.31	0.10
Manufacturing	−7.81^cf	−7.76^c	−10.75^abef	−8.57^f	−7.56^cf	−6.36
Transportation and warehousing	−0.46^c	−0.33	0.31^a	0.03	−0.10	−0.12
Retail trade and leisure services	3.33	3.32	4.09	3.32	3.60	3.41
Healthcare and social assistance	6.39	6.35	6.23	6.47^f	5.93	5.71

Notes: Significant difference at p < .05 (Games-Howell test) from the following opioid latent classes denoted by:

^{a =}

opioid syndemic,

^{b =}

synthetic + prescription,

^{c =}

prescription opioid,

^{d =}

high heroin,

^{e =}

emerging heroin, and

^{f =}

low opioid.