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. 2021 Mar 26;2021:5529810. doi: 10.1155/2021/5529810

Figure 1.

Figure 1

The regulatory mechanisms of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. ER stress in mammals has four components: inhibition of protein translation, upregulation of molecular chaperones, activation of the protein degradative program, and induction of apoptosis [79]. ER stress signal transduction is mediated via three crucial enzymes [80]: protein kinase R-link ER kinase (PERL), activating transcription factor-6 (ATF-6), and inositol-requiring enzyme-1 (IRE1). ER molecular chaperones acting as sensors of ER homeostasis play a key role in monitoring the accumulation of unfolded proteins within the ER.