Table 3.
Examples of active substances authorized as VMP, Biocide and pesticide, and their sublethal effects and acute toxicity values on bees (LC50 and LD50: lethal concentration and lethal dosage leading to the death of 50% of the studied population).
| Active substances | Families | Authorization framework | Sublethal effects | Acute toxicity | Species | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ivermectin | Macrocyclic lactone | VMP | Inhibition of long-term olfactory memory | LC50 = 570 ng/mL (24 h, oral) LD50 = 1.316 μg a.i/bee (topical) |
Apis mellifera | [76,77] |
| Abamectin | Macrocyclic lactone | VMP/Biocide/ Pesticide | Digestive disorder affecting colonies' health and vitality | LD50 = 0.011 μg a.i/bee (oral) LD50 = 7.8 μg a.i/bee (topical) |
Apis mellifera | [75,110,111] |
| Deltamethrin | Pyrethroid | VMP/Biocide/ Pesticide | Neurotoxic symptoms, decreased foraging activity, alteration of learning performance, disorientation, decreased fertility | LD50 = 0.850 μg a.i/bee (oral) LD50 = 0.0016 ng/bee (topical) |
Apis mellifera Megachile rotundata |
[94,[111], [112], [113], [114]] |
| Permethrin | Pyrethroid | VMP/Biocide | Lower learning response, Disruption of odor perception |
LD50 = 0.057 μg/bee (topical) | Megachile rotundata | [94,115,116] |
| Imidacloprid | Neonicotinoid | VMP/Biocide/ Pesticide | Disruption of olfactory learning, decreased foraging activity, reduced climbing ability, neurotoxic symptoms | LD50 = 5.4 ng/bee (24 h, oral) LD50 = 6.7 ng/bee (24 h, topical) |
Apis mellifera | [113,117,118] |